The Goose Wife (Inuit)

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The Goose Wife is a mythical female character that appears in tales from the Inuit and other ethnic groups that dwell across the circumpolar Arctic region.[1] The usual story is that the geese alight on land, become women by taking off their goose-skins and bathe in a lake. However, they are unaware that a human hunter is spying on them, and he steals the goose-skin of one of them, forcing her to be his wife. Due to the great similarities between both characters, the goose wife has been compared to the swan maiden, another female that alternates between human and bird forms.

Overview

Scholars have noted the great similarities between the character of the goose wife of the folklore of Arctic peoples[2] and the swan maiden, which appears across Eurasia in several mythologies.[3][a] The main plot points between both stories are that a flock of bird women (swans or geese) come to bathe in an earthly lake in human form; a man spies on them and steals the feather garments to force one of them to marry him; later, the bird woman regains her feathers (or birdskin) and flies back to the land of the birds.[5][6][2]

As cited by Lotte Motz, researcher Inge Kleivan compared several Eskimo narratives of the bird/goose wife and produced a hypothetical proto-form. In these tales, the goose wife leaves her human husband and travels to the "Land of Birds". Whenever the husband finds her, she is already married to another bird person.[7]

Researcher Birgitte Sonne stated that the bird wife is a wild goose or merganser in Greenland,[8] while Inge Kleivan, in an article on Enzyklopädie des Märchens, stated that the bird maiden in Inuit stories was "almost always" a goose or a duck.[9]

Distribution

William L. Sheppard traced the geographical distribution of the tale of the Man who Married Sea Fowl according to the available literature. Versions are found in the following regions and groups: Greenland, Labrador, Baffin, Iglulik, Netsilik, Copper, North Alaska, Northwest Alaska, Bering Strait, Mainland Southwest Alaska, Koniag, Siberian Yupik, and Chukchi.[10]

Tales

North America

A. L. Kroeber collected a tale titled The Man who married a Goose, from Smith Sound. In this tale, the human hunter finds a goose woman and steals her garment. He marries her and she bears two children. Years into their marriage, the goose woman gathers feathers for herself and her children, they become geese and fly away. The human hunter meets a man named Qayungayung, carving boats and creating sea animals with every wood splinter. Qayungayung agrees to take the man to his wife across the water.[11]

The goose wife also appears in tales of the Inuit hero Kiviuq. In these tales, Kiviuq (also Keeveeok, and variations) marries a woman whose goose skin he has stolen or hidden. She bears him children, but decides to fashion a pair of wings for her to return to the skies.[12][13][14][15] In a version collected by Kira Van Deusen, Kiviuq finds three maidens bathing, all three having cast their water bird skins: "a sandhill crane, a loon, and a Canada goose".[16]

Scientist Fridtjof Nansen reported an "Eskimo" tale wherein a reindeer-hunter finds some maidens bathing in a lake, and steals the clothes of one of them (the most beautiful one), while the other maidens escape in the form of geese and mergansers. The hunter marries the maiden and she bears him a son. However, she secretly gathers feathers to fashion new birdskins for her and her son, and they fly away. The hunter goes after them and meets a man cutting chips of wood that transform into fishes. The hunter rides a big salmon to where his family is hiding.[17]

Author Ramona Maher published a tale titled The Man who Married a Snow Goose. In this tale, on Kodiak Island a chief keeps his son at home to protect him from his prophesied death in the ocean. Time passes, and the boy grows restless with longing for the outside. When he is 17 years old, he distracts his father's guards and steps outside, delighting at the view of people, the sky, the sounds. When he sights the guards returning, a "lump of tears" fills him with an intense sadness. His father lets the young man live and hunt with other people of the village. One day, the young man sees five geese flying overhead. He follows them and, as he approaches, he hears women's voices and laughter. He finds five maidens playing and bathing in the water, some gooseskins carefully folded in some bushes. He hides the garments of the youngest; the five maidens leave the water, four of them turn back into geese. The young hunter takes the remaining goose maiden (now human) and takes her to the human village. Despite being in a human state, the goose wife still retains avian eating habits (for instance, she eats beach grass and grass under the trees; seeds from pods and berries). A baby boy is born to her. Her sister-in-law mocks her laughter, and, tired of the abuse, the snow goose wife finds the goosekin, wears it and flies away with the baby on her back. The hunter learns of her departure and goes after her. Near the end of the journey, he meets an old man carving a piece of wood. The old man introduces himself as Qayungayung. The human hunter travels across the sea on a king salmon and finds his wife and son in the "land where the birds stay during winter". He tries to adjust to life with the bird people, but eventually intrudes in their ritual transformation between human and bird forms. At the end of the tale, the birds say they need to move out to another region, and the human hunter is carried by an eagle, but the bird bites his arm and he falls to his death in the water. The hunter and goose maiden's son becomes a puffin.[18]

Canada

Franz Boas collected a tale from the "Central Eskimo" (Cumberland Sound), with the title Ititaujang (or Itajung), after its main character. Ititaujang goes to the "land of the birds" and finds himself a wife there, by hiding the maiden's boots. She reluctanly marries the human hunter and goes to live in his hut. She gives birth to a son and gathers enough feathers for herself and the boy to fly back to her original home in "the land of the birds".[19][20] As the tale continues, on the way to his wife, hunter Ititaujang meets a man named Ixalu'qdjung chopping a piece of red wood with his hatchet.[21] According to Boas's research, to the Aivilik, the tale of Ititaujang also belongs to the Kiviuq Cycle, as the episode of Kiviuq meeting the "Salmon Man" during the quest for his wife.[22]

Ethnologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson collected two tales of goose wives from two Copper Inuit tellers. In both tales, the hunter has stolen the garments of a grey goose maiden. He marries her and she begets him a certain number of children (one in the first version, three in the second). She prepares makeshift wings for her and her children and they leave behind the human father (on the second tale, only a child remains with the father).[23]

In a version from Baffin Land, the human hunter, named Itiqtaujaq, steals the boots of a goose maiden and marries her. She does not adapt to ordinary human life and collects feathers to make a new pair of wings for herself and her son. Both depart with the wings and Itiqtaujaq follows after them. The hunter meets a person named Eqaluqdjuq, who is carving a piece of wood and every wood chip falls into the water to become salmon.[24]

Knud Rasmussen collected a tale from the Iglulik Inuit with the title The man who travelled to the land of birds: a man goes after his wild goose wife in the land where gulls and ravens lived. The story flashes back to the moment where he met his wife: he found a group of women playing and frolicking without clothes on, and withheld their garments; intent on finding a strong woman as wife, he tested their strength by having them pull a line made of the hide of a bearded seal. He chose the strongest woman, married her and had children. However, when autumn came and the wild geese flew away, so did his wife. Back to the present, the man finds shelter in a double house that belongs to a raven and a gull. Later, he looks for the land of wild geese, and, in his lonely moments, sings a song about his adventures. At last, he finds the land of birds. Outside his wife's double house, their son sees him and goes inside to tell his mother.[25]

Authors Edward W. Dolch and Marguerite P. Dolch published a tale they sourced from Canada. In this tale, The Fairy Maidens and its sequel, The Hunter and the Fairy Maiden, a hunter tries to shoot some deer, but they beg for their lives. The hunter complies and the deer, in gratitude, direct him to a lake. He goes to the lake and waits a little; suddenly, seven white birds come, take off their feather garments and become human maidens to bathe in the lake. The hunter steals one of their garments. As night falls, the maidens try to look for their sister's garments, but, since it is late, they fly away and leave their sister by the lake. The hunter comes out of the bushes and promises to give the maiden the garments, if she becomes his wife. In the second part, the hunter has married the bird maiden, and lives with their two sons. The maiden knows her husband hid her garments in a box, and wears it from time to time. Eventually, the village suffers from a period of hunger, and the bird maiden, daughter of a sky god, tells her husband her father will bring them food. Some time later, a flock of snow geese bring them food. Despite the help, one of the villagers complains that the food is for birds. Feeling insulted, the maiden wears her garments, takes her sons and flies back to her father. The hunter notices his wife's absence and consults with his chief, who advises him to go to the end of the Big Water. Once there, the hunter meets a giant that helps him cross the water to the land of birds in the sky. At he end of the tale, the sky god turns the hunter into a sea-gull, so that he can live with his family.[26]

Alaska

Author Margaret Lantis published a version of the bird-wife from Kodiak Island and compared it to tales from Baffin Land and from Greenland.[27]

F. A. Golder collected a tale from Kodiak Island (more specifically, from Unga Island), with the title The Grouse-Girl. In this tale, two male hunters live in a hut together, one older and lame, and the other young. One day, a grouse lands near the young hunter, but he shoos it away three times. Then the bird sits near the older one, who gives him food. As they continue hunting game for themselves, they return home and see the place clean and tidy. Suspecting someone is entering their house, the old hunter hides while the other is hunting, and sees the grouse taking off its skin and becoming a woman.[28][29]

In a tale collected by Elizabeth Burrows in Old Hamilton, Lower Yukon, with the title The Goose Girl, a man has three sisters, the youngest with an eye in the middle of her head. When he goes deer-hunting, the keeps a goose in a hunting pen. After he returns from the hunt, he discovers that his food is always prepared and his clothes hung out to dry. He spies on his mysterious housekeeper: a girl that takes off its goose-skin. The man surprises her, but she warns him she is an animal, not human. Either way, he marries her and she bears him a son. He takes his wife with him to live with his sisters, but his youngest sibling complains that the goose wife does not sew his clothes in a proper way and complains about her eating habits. Feeling insulted, she wears back the goose skin, turns into a bird and takes her son with her to the south. Her human husband goes after her and finds her living with a new mate, a crane. His son sees his father coming and goes inside to tell his mother about it.[30]

Canadian anthropologist Diamond Jenness collected a tale titled The Duck Wife, from an informant named Fred, an Eskimo from Nome, Alaska. In this tale, in Tapqaq (Cape Prince of Wales) a man and his wife insist that their son finds a wife. He leaves home in search of one. He travels on his kayak to another region. He sees a group of maidens bathing and captures one as his wife. He offers her some game, but she refuses. He brings her to his parents. She bears him a son and a daughter, and refuses to eat meat, preferring to eat herbs to sate her hunger. Her mother-in-law notices the strange habit of hers and mocklingly suggests she might be a duck. The wife feels insulted and storms off their house with her two children. Her husband comes home and questions his mother about his wife's absence. He deduces she has gone off and goes after her. On his way, he meets two men and gain an ax and a pair of pants made of sealskin. When he reaches the margin of a lake, he sleeps for a while. When he wakes up, a fox is at his side. The fox takes off its coat, becomes a man and asks him about his destination. The fox-man directs him to a mountain where "the dead" roam about, and beyond that a village, where the largest house with herds of deer belongs to his wife. He crosses the mountain and reaches the village, where his son - now an adult - sees him and goes home to warn his mother. The hunter enters the house and the wife doubts that he is her husband. After some explaining, the hunter sits down to eat with his family: small berries and little fishes, no seal or deer meat - a diet for ducks. At the end of the tale, after a third child is born to them, the hunter departs with his child and wife back to his land, and leaves his elder son and daughter there.[31] The tale was also translated into Russian as "Женщина-утка" ("The Duck Wife").[32]

Greenland

Danish scholar Hinrich Johannes Rink collected an "Eskimo" tale from Greenland, which he titled The Man who mated himself with a Sea-Fowl. The bird maiden is described as a "bird" or "sea-fowl" at the beginning of the tale, and as a gull at the end.[33]

Knud Rasmussen collected a tale titled The Man who took a Wife from among the Wild Geese, from a Greenlander informant named Tateraq. In this tale, a man sees a flock of wild geese coming to bathe in a lake, take off their skins and become men and women. The human hunter steals the birdcoats of two of their women. One of them begs for her birdskin to be returned, which he does, and keeps another women as his wife. They marry and she bears him two twin boys. As time passes, the goose wife, now stranded in a human life, begins to miss her flock and gathers enough loose feathers for a new garment for herself. One day, while her human husband is away, the goose wife wears the makeshift birdcoat and flies away with her two children. The human husband realizes his wife is missing and goes after her. He passes by two earth spirits, a boiling pot with seal's flesh inside, and some hairless dogs, until he meets a creature named Kajungajorssuaq. Kajungajorssuaq points him the way to hi wife. The man jumps on the ice-floe and goes to his wife and children. His wife, however, was married to another man, a long-tailed duck.[34]

In a Greenlandic tale, "Жена-гусыня" ("The Goose Woman"), a woman lives with her grandson. One day, on his wanderings, he sights a group of women (geese) bathing, some clothes tossed aside. He takes them all. The women leave the lake and ask for their clothes back: he returns to everyone but two, a small girl and an older girl. Choosing the older girl as his wife, he returns the clothes to the younger. He marries the goose woman and she gives birth to two eggs, that hatch two boys. The old woman ponders about the strange behaviour of her great-grandchildren: they peck at the leather walls of the hut to look for pebbles, and gather feathers found on the beach. Ond day, the goose wife leaves home with her sons and does not return. The human husband asks his grandmother her whereabouts. He goes after her on a long journey. One time, he finds a giant man cutting a tree with an axe; the splinters falling into the water and becoming trouts. The strange man, named Kayunayugsyuak, tells the hunter he saw three birds cross the water. The man helps him cross the water to the other side, and finds the land of geese, where his wife and sons live.[35]

Pacific Northwest

Anthropologist John R. Swanton collected several tales of the Goose Wife from the Haida and the Tlingit, and summarized their common points: the hunter captures two geese maidens, eventually marrying one or both; the goose maidens, now human, are given food when the "goose tribe" flies over them; they return to the skies and the human husband goes after them.[36]

In a Tlingit tale collected by Swanton from Sitka, Alaska, The Brant Wives, a KîksA'di finds two women bathing in a pond, and steals their bird garments to force them to marry him. Both women, who are two brants, agree to marry him. They live together. When spring comes, the brant wives see a flock of brants flying and ask them for food. When the flock returns and flies south, both wives go with them. Their human husband follows them.[37] A second tale, The Brant Wife, was collected from Wrangell, Alaska.[38]

Swanton also published a Haida tale, collected from a Walter McGregor of the "Sealion-town people", with the title He who hunted birds in his father's village. In this tale, a chief's son hunts about and finds two women bathing in a lake. He takes their geese garments and withholds them until the youngest maiden agrees to marry him. He returns the goose skin of the oldest and she flies back to the skies. The chief's son marries the youngest goose maiden and hides her featherskin in a tree just before the village entrance. Some time later, the goose wife begins to yearn for her former life, takes the skin back and flies away from her human husband. When he wakes up, he questions everyone in the village of her whereabouts, and decides to go after her.[39]

Asia

Northeast Asia

Professor Waldemar Bogoras collected and published a tale from Northeastern Asia, collected among the Chukchi people. In this tale, the bird-wife is a goose. The hunter hides her goose-skin and marries her. The goose wife, however, is secretly visited by a flock of geese that throws her a new bunch of feathers to replace her lost feather skin. When the human hunter finds his wife, she is already married to another husband (a glaucus gull in one tale, an eagle-shaman in another). Bogoras also noted its resemblance to the Eskimo tale of "Ititaujang".[2]

Charles Fillingham Coxwell [de] translated a Chukchi tale collected by Bogoras as The Story of a Bird Woman: the protagonist marries a gull maiden. When she departs back to bird's country, the human husband finds a monstrous man carving firewood, who helps him by carving him a canoe.[40] In his notes to this tale, Coxwell commented that the bird-woman appears in tales from the Yakut, Lapps and Samoyeds.[41]

Adaptations

Modern writer Rosamund Marriott Watson, under the pen name Graham R. Tomson, wrote Ballad of the Bird-Bride, a poem from the point of view of an Inuit hunter who marries the grey gull maiden and laments her departure.[42][43]

Folklorist Lafcadio Hearn adapted the Inuit legend of the bird wife (gull maiden) for his book Stray leaves from strange literature, with the title The Bird Wife.[44]

Footnotes

  1. ^ Ethnologue John Bierhorst [de] also compared the "Goose Wife" to the "Swan Maiden" and stated that the story was "deeply entrenched in Inuit tradition".[4]

References

  1. ^ Bäcker, Jörg. "Schwanjungfrau". In: Enzyklopädie des Märchens Band 12: Schinden, Schinder – Sublimierung. Edited by Rudolf Wilhelm Brednich; Hermann Bausinger; Wolfgang Brückner; Daniel Drascek; Helge Gerndt; Ines Köhler-Zülch; Lutz Röhrich; Klaus Roth. De Gruyter, 2016 [2007]. p. 314. ISBN 978-3-11-019936-9.
  2. ^ a b c Bogoras, Waldemar (1902). "The Folklore of Northeastern Asia, as Compared with That of Northwestern America". American Anthropologist. 4 (4): 577–683. doi:10.1525/aa.1902.4.4.02a00020. JSTOR 659376.
  3. ^ Hatt, Gudmund (1949). Asiatic influences in American folklore. København: I kommission hos ejnar Munksgaard. pp. 94-96.
  4. ^ Bierhorst, John; Okheena, Mary K. The dancing fox: Arctic folktales. New York: Morrow, 1997. p. 136.
  5. ^ Boas, Franz (1904). "The Folk-Lore of the Eskimo". The Journal of American Folklore. 17 (64): 1–13. doi:10.2307/533982. JSTOR 533982.
  6. ^ Hatto, A. T. (February 1961). "The Swan Maiden a Folk-Tale of North Eurasian Origin?". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 24 (2): 326–352. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00091461. S2CID 161707552.
  7. ^ Motz, Lotte (1986). "New thoughts on Vǫlundarkviða". Saga-Book. 22: 50–68. JSTOR 48612754.
  8. ^ Sonne, Birgitte (2017). "The Other World(s) and Its Beings". Worldviews of the Greenlanders: An Inuit Arctic Perspective. University Press of Colorado. pp. 157–210. ISBN 978-1-60223-338-6. JSTOR j.ctv21fqf5z.8.
  9. ^ Kleivan, Inge. "Eskimos" [Eskimo Narrative Tradition]. In: Enzyklopädie des Märchens Online. Edited by Rolf Wilhelm Brednich, Heidrun Alzheimer, Hermann Bausinger, Wolfgang Brückner, Daniel Drascek, Helge Gerndt, Ines Köhler-Zülch, Klaus Roth and Hans-Jörg Uther. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2016 [1984]. https://www-degruyter-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/database/EMO/entry/emo.4.050/html. Accessed 2022-10-26.
  10. ^ Sheppard, William L. (1998). "Population Movements, Interaction, and Legendary Geography". Arctic Anthropology. 35 (2): 147–165. JSTOR 40316494.
  11. ^ Kroeber, A. L. “Tales of the Smith Sound Eskimo”. In: The Journal of American Folklore 12, no. 46 (1899): 170–172. https://doi.org/10.2307/534175.
  12. ^ Rasmussen, Knud. The Netsilik Eskimos, social life and spiritual culture. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1931. pp. 373-375.
  13. ^ Wright, Shelley (2014). Our Ice Is Vanishing / Sikuvut Nunguliqtuq: A History of Inuit, Newcomers, and Climate Change. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 77–78, 292. ISBN 978-0-7735-4462-8. JSTOR j.ctt7zt453.
  14. ^ Mamnguqsualuk, Victoria (1986). Keeveeok Awake!: Mamnguqsualuk and the Rebirth of Legend at Baker Lake. University of Alberta Press. pp. 13, 50–53. ISBN 978-0-919058-34-7.
  15. ^ Van Deusen, Kira (2009). Kiviuq: An Inuit Hero and His Siberian Cousins. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 11, 38–42, 287–291, 308. ISBN 978-0-7735-3499-5. JSTOR j.ctt813zv.
  16. ^ Van Deusen, Kira (2009). "Kiviuq's Life Story". Kiviuq: An Inuit Hero and His Siberian Cousins. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 18–42. ISBN 978-0-7735-3499-5. JSTOR j.ctt813zv.6.
  17. ^ Nansen, Fridtjof. Eskimo Life, translated by William Archer. 2nd edition. London and New York: Longmans, Green, and Company, 1894. pp. 297-298.
  18. ^ Maher, Ramona. The blind boy and the loon, and other Eskimo myths. John Day Co, 1969. pp. 79-98.
  19. ^ "The Bird Wife". In: Bayliss, Clara Kern. A treasury of Eskimo tales. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell. 1922. pp. 23-27.
  20. ^ "Ititaujang". In: Boas, Franz. The Central Eskimo. Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1884–1885; Government Printing Office, Washington, 1888. pp. 616–618.
  21. ^ Boas, Franz; Comer, George; Mutch, James S.; Peck, E. J. (1901). "The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay". Bulletin of the AMNH. 15 (1): 179–182. hdl:2246/1251.
  22. ^ Boas, Franz; Comer, George; Mutch, James S.; Peck, E. J. (Edmund James) (1907). "Second report on the Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay". Bulletin of the AMNH. 15 (2): 555. hdl:2246/738.
  23. ^ Canadian Arctic Expedition., Stefansson, V., Canada. Department of Marine and Fisheries., Canada. Department of Mines., Canada. Department of the Naval Service. Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-1918. Vol. XIII: Eskimo Folk-lore. Ottawa: King's Printer, 1924. p. 77.
  24. ^ Pearce, Susan M. (1987). "Ivory, antler, feather and wood: material culture and the cosmology of the Cumberland Sound Inuit, Baffin Island, Canada" (PDF). The Canadian Journal of Native Studies. 7 (2): 307–321.
  25. ^ Rasmussen, Knud. Intellectual culture of the Iglulik Eskimos. Report of the Fifth Thule Expedition 1921-1924. Vol. VII. No. 1. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1929. pp. 265-267.
  26. ^ Dolch, Edward William. Stories from Canada. Champaign, III., Garrard Pub. Co., 1964. pp. 58-65, 66-73.
  27. ^ Lantis, Margaret (April 1938). "The Mythology of Kodiak Island, Alaska". The Journal of American Folklore. 51 (200): 123–172. doi:10.2307/535533. JSTOR 535533.
  28. ^ Golder, F. A. (January 1903). "Tales from Kodiak Island". The Journal of American Folklore. 16 (60): 16–31. doi:10.2307/533671. JSTOR 533671.
  29. ^ Golder, F. A. (April 1903). "Tales from Kodiak Island. II". The Journal of American Folklore. 16 (61): 85–103. doi:10.2307/532759. JSTOR 532759.
  30. ^ Burrows, Elizabeth (January 1926). "Eskimo Tales". The Journal of American Folklore. 39 (151): 79–81. doi:10.2307/534972. JSTOR 534972.
  31. ^ Jenness, Diamond (1924). Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-18 v. XIII. Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty. pp. 49A–52A. OCLC 506069367.
  32. ^ Меновщиков, Георгий. "Эскимосские сказки и мифы" [Eskimo Tales and Myths]. Мoskva: Главная редакция восточной литературы издательства «Наука», 1988. pp. 342-347.
  33. ^ Rink, Hinrich; Brown, Robert. Tales and traditions of the Eskimo, with a sketch of their habits, religion, language and other peculiarities. Edinburgh, London, W. Blackwood and Sons. 1875. pp. 145–148.
  34. ^ Rasmussen, Knud. The people of the Polar north: a record. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1908. pp. 165-167.
  35. ^ Меновщиков, Георгий. "Эскимосские сказки и мифы" [Eskimo Tales and Myths]. Мoskva: Главная редакция восточной литературы издательства «Наука», 1988. pp. 406-409.
  36. ^ Swanton, John R. (January 1905). "Types of Haida and Tlingit Myths". American Anthropologist. 7 (1): 94–103. doi:10.1525/aa.1905.7.1.02a00110. JSTOR 659338.
  37. ^ Swanton, John Reed. Tlingit myths and texts, recorded by John R. Swanton. Washington, Govt. print. off. 1909. pp. 55-57, 425.
  38. ^ Swanton, John Reed. Tlingit myths and texts, recorded by John R. Swanton. Washington, Govt. print. off. 1909. pp. 206-209, 436.
  39. ^ Swanton, John Reed (1905). "He who hunted birds in his father's village". Haida texts and myths, Skidegate dialect. pp. 264–268. OCLC 551360730.
  40. ^ Coxwell, C. F. Siberian And Other Folk Tales. London: The C. W. Daniel Company, 1925. pp. 82-84.
  41. ^ Coxwell, C. F. Siberian And Other Folk Tales. London: The C. W. Daniel Company, 1925. p. 93.
  42. ^ Watson, Rosamund Marriott. The bird-bride: a volume of ballads and sonnets. London, New York, Longmans, Green, and co. 1889. pp. 1–5.
  43. ^ Hughes, Linda K. ""Fair Hymen Holdeth Hid a World of Woes": Myth and Marriage in Poems by "Graham R Tomson" (Rosamund Marriott Watson)". In: Victorian Poetry 32, no. 2 (1994): 101–105. Accessed 6 April 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40003030.
  44. ^ Hearn, Lafcadio. Stray leaves from strange literature: stories reconstructed from the Anvari-Soheïli, Baitál, Pachísí, Mahabharata, Pantchatantra, Gulistan, Talmud, Kalewala, etc.. Boston: J.R. Osgood. 1884. pp. 41–45.

Further reading

  • Snyder, Gary (1979). He Who Hunted Birds in His Father's Village: The Dimensions of a Haida Myth. Preface by Nathaniel Tarn. Bolinas, California: Grey Fox Press.
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