Competitive debate in the United States

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A group of high-school students stand in a semi-circle. A boy in the middle is holding a trophy. The students are smiling and several appear to be laughing.
Debaters from High Point Central High School pose with their championship trophy in 1965

Competitive debate, also known as forensics or speech and debate, has a history in the United States dating back to colonial times. There are a variety of debate formats, including Public Forum, Lincoln–Douglas, Policy, and British Parliamentary. The activity also encompasses many speaking events, including Oratory, Extemporaneous Speaking, and Dramatic Interpretation. Participation in competitive debate is associated with positive outcomes for competitors across a wide variety of metrics, including standardized test scores, civic engagement, and future career outcomes.

History

Debate as a teaching tool: 1642–1892

Competitive debate in the United States can be traced back to colonial times. As the earliest colleges in America were modeled after British universities, they adopted in-class debates as a pedagogical tool.[1]: 28  Initially, these took the form of "syllogistic disputations," highly-structured conversations in Latin which were expected to follow the strict rules of logic.[1]: 29  These conversations often focused on the nature of public speaking itself, rather than broader social issues.[1]: 29  Eventually this form of debate fell out of fashion, replaced by "forensic disputations." First introduced at Yale University in 1747, this structure was looser and allowed for more natural conversations. The topics for these debates veered towards the hot-button issues of the time – One class, at Princeton in 1768, discussed the topic "It is the interest of any nation, to have the trade of its new countries as free from embarrassment as possible."[1]: 29  This structure, too, fell out of fashion and was gradually replaced by a system of literary societies at individual universities. Institutions would often have multiple societies, each of which would compete with the other academically.[1]: 30 

Development of intercollegiate debate: 1892–1925

In 1873, a group of public speaking enthusiasts at Knox College organized the first intercollegiate public speaking organization, known as the Interstate Oratorical Association, which held a yearly competition. The group quickly grew to include chapters in fourteen states and was followed by several other leagues in other regions of the country.[2]: 4–5  The first, informal, intercollegiate debate was held between Harvard and Yale in 1892 and was followed by similar contests on the West Coast and in the Midwest.[3]: 213 

From 1906 to 1911, a flurry of intercollegiate debate activity led to the establishment of four different honor societies, or leagues, for debate. Those organizations were Delta Sigma Rho, Tau Kappa Alpha, Phi Alpha Tau, and Pi Kappa Delta.[4] Delta Sigma Rho was founded by a conglomerate of state universities in Chicago in 1906 and quickly became known as the honor society for large universities and Ivy League institutions. Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale were all members.[4]: 30–31 Tau Kappa Alpha, founded in 1908 by a committee of students from various Indiana institutions, established a system where each state could only have one chapter. Because of this, it became highly selective with its membership.[4]: 31–32  Phi Alpha Tau, which was founded sometime between 1908 and 1911, allowed debaters and non-debaters alike to join, provided they could show an interest in rhetoric.[4]: 32  Delta Sigma Rho and Tau Kappa Alpha would eventually merge in 1963, while Phi Alpha Tau is now a fraternity at Emerson College.[5][6]: 2 

In 1911, Pi Kappa Delta was founded at Ottawa University by John A. Shields and Edgar A. Vaughn.[7]: 19  Shields, an undergraduate at the university, had been corresponding with Egbert R. Nichols, a former professor at Ottawa who had recently moved to Ripon College. Upon learning that there was not a nationwide debate league which recognized competitors from smaller colleges, Nichols suggested that students from both institutions form their own league. Shields collaborated with Vaughn, a student at Kansas Agricultural College, to lobby other Kansas debate teams to join their newfound institution.[8]: 3  Concurrently, Nichols promoted the organization to fellow professors in Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, and Iowa. Students at Ripon College wrote a charter for the organization, which was signed in January 1913 after several rounds of revisions.[8]: 4  In the first two years of the organization, it granted 14 institutional memberships and hundreds of individual memberships across seven states.[9]

Beginning of high school debate: 1925–1970

Competitive debating stayed a primarily intercollegiate activity until 1925, when Bruno E. Jacob founded the National Forensic League (NFL), which has since been renamed to the National Speech and Debate Association (NSDA). A professor at Ripon College, Jacob was inspired by a letter he received asking if a debate league for high school students existed. Upon learning that one did not, Jacob established the NFL on March 28, 1925, and within a year the league had 100 member schools around the country.[10][11] In 1937, the NFL established a "National Student Congress," a debate event in which students roleplay as members of the United States Congress. During World War II the NFL suspended operations except for the Congress, receiving a letter of commendation from President Franklin Delano Roosevelt.[11] In 1950 Jacob resigned his teaching post to devote himself to the NFL on a full-time basis. By the time of his resignation in 1969, the league had grown to over 300,000 student members.[11]

In 1963, U.S. Senator B. Everett Jordan introduced a bill to require the Librarian of Congress to prepare a report on the Policy debate topics at the high school and intercollegiate level each year.[12] This bill was eventually adopted into law, with annual reports published to this day.[13]

Rise of "progressive" debate: 1970–present

The activity of debate continued to grow, eventually becoming large enough to not require invited judges, such as policy experts or professors of rhetoric. By the mid-1970s, tournaments were often judged by former or current competitors. In 1972, the Tournament of Champions was founded by J.W. Patterson, director of debate at the University of Kentucky. This event, which would go on to become the most prestigious national tournament for high school students, was specifically designed as a tournament without inexperienced judges.[14] With these developments, team strategy began to move away from a "public model" geared at a general audience and towards a "policy making" model. Allan Louden, tracing these developments at the National Debate Tournament, noted that "as speed rapidly increased...debate became more analytical, geared to expert audiences."[15]: 22  In the 1980s or the early 1990s,[16] a new argument called a "kritik" was introduced to intercollegiate debate. Kritiks are a unique type of argument which argue "that there is a harm created by the assumption created or used by the other side" – that is, there is some other issue that must be addressed before the topic can be debated.[17]: 19  Early debaters used kritiks alongside other arguments.[16] Because kritiks did not require competitors to directly debate the assigned topic, they faced criticism.[17]: 24–26 [16] Nevertheless, they took hold and remain a stable of intercollegiate and high school debate today. Most recently, some debaters have advanced an argumentation style known as "performance debate" which emphasizes "identity, narrative understandings, and confrontation of life's disparities."[15]: 23  This argumentation style, advanced predominantly by Black debaters, has been used by debaters to discuss issues related to identity and difference.[18]: 304–305 

Variations of competitive debate

In the United States there are a wide variety of debate formats and leagues to support them. At the high school level, the predominant league is the National Speech and Debate Association, which offers seven debate events and eighteen speaking events.[19] Other high school leagues, such as the National Catholic Forensic League, National Christian Forensics and Communications Association, and Stoa USA, offer similar events.[20][21][22] Intercollegiate leagues vary, but generally only offer a single style of debate.[23][24][25]

Formats

Competitor outcomes

Participation in competitive debate is associated with positive outcomes for competitors. Advocates for debate education, such as former United States Secretary of Education Arne Duncan, cite debate education as being "uniquely suited" to developing "critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity."[26][27] Former competitors generally describe their time as competitive debaters positively, describing it as leading to broadened worldviews and a more well-rounded education.[28]: 28–30 

At the high school level, debate competitors outscore non-debate competitors on standardized tests and have higher grade point averages (GPAs).[29] One study found that competitors in the Chicago Urban Debate League (UDL) were more likely to graduate high school, scored an additional point higher on all portions of the ACT, and had significantly higher GPAs.[30]: 630  Another study, also focused on the Chicago UDL, found that "debaters report greater social, civic, and social engagement than non-debaters."[31]: 371  A study of Colorado students found a small yet statistically significant relationship between debate participation and higher standardized test scores.[32]: 49  This effect has been especially noted among at-risk and African American students. Briana Mezuk found in a 2009 study that African American male students who participated in debate were more likely to graduate and have stronger reading comprehension than their peers who did not participate in debate.[33]: 299 

Similar results have been observed among intercollegiate competitors. A two-decade cohort study by Rogers, Freeman, and Rennels recorded competitors civic engagement, career trajectory, and continued education.[34] Intercollegiate competitors were more likely to vote, volunteer, have more diverse friend groups, and healthier personality profiles.[34]: 16  They were also more likely to receive pay raises and promotions.[34]: 18 

Controversies

Discrimination within the community

Multiple studies have noted that female debaters tend to under-perform male debaters, despite there being no innate basis for this disparity. This disparity has been noted at both the high school and intercollegiate level.[35][36][37][38] One study, comparing 125,087 high school debate rounds across two different seasons, found that female-female teams were 17.1% less likely to win and male-female teams were 10% less likely to win when competing against a male-male team.[36]: 4  Female debaters were also found to be 30.34% more likely to quit the activity.[36]: 18  This disparity can be at least partially attributed to the subjective nature of a debate round, with a 2022 qualitative study of high school debate competitors finding that the "norms surrounding what it means to be a 'good' debater" often played into gender biases.[37]: 12 

Progressive debate

A headshot of a black woman with a wide smile, glasses, and several beaded necklaces
Supreme Court Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson is a former debater

Some modern-day debate practices have been criticized. Spreading, the practice of reading arguments at near-incomprehensible speeds, has faced criticism for creating an environment where the team that can read more arguments wins, regardless of persuasiveness.[39] Former national champion debater and U.S. Senator Ted Cruz described it as "a pernicious disease that has undermined the very essence of high school and college debate."[40] Defenders of the practice, such as Dr. Justin Eckstein, claim that it prioritizes critical thinking and research and that debaters will inevitably prioritize speed in order to read more arguments.[41]

Notable former competitors

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Bartanen, Michael D.; Littlefield, Robert S. (2014). Forensics in America: A History. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-2620-3.
  2. ^ Thueblood, Thomas C. (1926). "A chapter on the organization of college courses in public speaking". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 12 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1080/00335632609379597.
  3. ^ Nichols, Egbert Ray (1936). "A historical sketch of intercollegiate debating: I". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 22 (2): 213–220. doi:10.1080/00335633609380186 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  4. ^ a b c d "Forensic Honorary Associations" (PDF). The Forensic. 1 (1). 1915.
  5. ^ Blake, A. P. (March 1, 2013). "Phi Alpha Tau: an example for us all". The Suffolk Journal. Retrieved September 8, 2022.
  6. ^ Walker, Ben (2015). "The 2015 State of Delta Sigma Rho-Tau Kappa Alpha". Speaker & Gavel. 52 (2).
  7. ^ Norton, L. E. (1982). "The History of Pi Kappa Delta" (PDF). The Forensic. 67 (2).
  8. ^ a b Krenmyre, J. H. (1915). "Pi Kappa Delta, A Historical Sketch" (PDF). The Forensic. 1 (1).
  9. ^ Vaughn, Edgar A. (1915). "Chapter Roll of Pi Kappa Delta" (PDF). The Forensic. 1 (1): 23–29.
  10. ^ "Throwback Thursday: The History of the National Forensics League". Ripon Press. April 22, 2021. Retrieved September 5, 2022.
  11. ^ a b c "History". National Speech & Debate Association. Retrieved September 5, 2022.
  12. ^ "Congressional Record - Senate - Friday, November 15, 1963". Congressional Record. 109 (16): 21928. November 15, 2022.
  13. ^ "44 U.S. Code § 1333 - National high school and college debate topics". Legal Information Institute. Retrieved September 14, 2022.
  14. ^ Cruz, Jon (March 10, 2008). "Good Evening Mr. and Mrs. North and South America and All Ships At Sea, Let's Go to Press!". Victory Briefs Daily. Archived from the original on May 17, 2008. Retrieved September 10, 2022.
  15. ^ a b Louden, Allan (2013). ""Permanent Adaptation" - The NDT's Last 50 Years". Speaker & Gavel. 50 (2).
  16. ^ a b c Smith, Elijah J. (2020). The kritik-focus model of debate (PDF). Proceedings of the Tokyo Conference on Argumentation. pp. 137–145.
  17. ^ a b Bennett, William (1996). "An Introduction to the "Kritik"" (PDF). Rostrum. 70 (8).
  18. ^ Sciullo, Nick J. (2019). "The racial coding of performance debate: race, difference, and policy debate". Argumentation and Advocacy. 55 (4): 303–321. doi:10.1080/10511431.2019.1672028. S2CID 210570486 – via Taylor and Francis Online.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g Competition Events Guide (PDF). National Speech and Debate Association. September 6, 2022.
  20. ^ "Competition Events". NCFL. Retrieved September 9, 2022.
  21. ^ "Speech Events". Stoa. Retrieved September 9, 2022.
  22. ^ "Debate Resolutions". Stoa. Retrieved September 9, 2022.
  23. ^ "About the Cross-Examination Debate Association". Cross-Examination Debate Association. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  24. ^ a b "About the APDA". American Parliamentary Debate Association. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  25. ^ "The Mission & Philosophy of IPDA". International Public Debate Association. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  26. ^ Duncan, Arne (April 12, 2012). "The Power of Debate - Building the Five "C's" for the 21st Century". U.S. Department of Education. Archived from the original on May 1, 2012. Retrieved September 5, 2022.
  27. ^ "The Power of Speech & Debate Education". Stanford National Forensic Institute. Retrieved September 5, 2022.
  28. ^ Copeland, Kristopher; James, Kendrea (2016). ""My College Education has come from My Participation in the Forensics Team": An Examination of the Skills and Benefits of Collegiate Forensic Participation". Speaker & Gavel. 53 (2).
  29. ^ Alegria, Penelope (October 10, 2020). ""Bro Culture" Is Debate Culture". Harvard Political Review. Retrieved September 5, 2022.
  30. ^ Mezuk, Briana; Bondarenko, Irina; Smith, Suzanne; Tucker, Eric (September 5, 2011). "Impact of Participating in a Policy Debate Program on Academic Achievement: Evidence from the Chicago Urban Debate League". Educational Research and Reviews. 6 (9) – via ERIC.
  31. ^ Anderson, Susannah; Mezuk, Briana (2015). "Positive Youth Development and Participation in an Urban Debate League: Results from Chicago Public Schools, 1997-2007". The Journal of Negro Education. 84 (3): 362. doi:10.7709/jnegroeducation.84.3.0362. JSTOR 10.7709/jnegroeducation.84.3.0362. S2CID 146869747 – via JSTOR.
  32. ^ Peters, Tammie L. (October 1, 2009). "An Investigation into the Relationship Between Participation in Competitive Forensics and Standardized Test Scores" (PDF). Rostrum. 84 (2).
  33. ^ Mezuk, Briana (2009). "Urban Debate and High School Educational Outcomes for African American Males: The Case of the Chicago Debate League". The Journal of Negro Education. 78 (3): 290–304. JSTOR 25608747 – via JSTOR.
  34. ^ a b c Rogers, Jack E.; Freeman, Nicole P. M.; Rennels, Arthur R. (Fall 2017). "Where Are They Now(?): Two Decades of Longitudinal Outcome Assessment Data Linking Positive Student, Graduate Student, Career and Life Trajectory Decisions to Participation in Intercollegiate Competitive Debate" (PDF). National Forensic Journal. 35 (1).
  35. ^ Dhillon, Kiranjeet; Larson, April. "Biological Sex as a Predictor of Competitive Success in Intercollegiate Forensics" (PDF). National Forensic Journal. 29 (2).
  36. ^ a b c Nie, Alyssa; Yi, AJ (2020). "An Empirical Study of Gender Differences in Competitive High School Debate". SSRN. SSRN 3715996.
  37. ^ a b Robertson, Stella; Zuniga, Petra; Christenson, Hannah; Young, Jason (May 23, 2022). "Gender dynamics in high school policy debate: propagating gender hierarchies in advocating 'better' futures". Gender and Education: 1–16. doi:10.1080/09540253.2022.2094348. S2CID 250588340.
  38. ^ Matthews, Nicholas C. (2016). "The Influence of Biological Sex on Perceived Aggressive Communication in Debater–Judge Conflicts in Parliamentary Debate". Western Journal of Communication. 80 (1): 38–59. doi:10.1080/10570314.2015.1114140. S2CID 146189044.
  39. ^ McCordick, Jack (September 26, 2017). "The Corrosion of High School Debate - And How It Mirrors American Politics". America: The Jesuit Review. Retrieved September 8, 2022.
  40. ^ Kruger, Daniel (February 7, 2018). "How to Win a High-School Debate: Talk Like a Cattle Auctioneer". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved September 8, 2022.
  41. ^ Eckstein, Justin (September 17, 2012). "Easy Listening: Spreading and the Role of the Ear in Debating". Sounding Out!. Retrieved September 9, 2022.
  42. ^ "Justice Alito offers lessons from the bench — and a distinguished career". Duke Law. October 1, 2013. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  43. ^ Schneider, Nathan (July 1, 2013). "The New Theist". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  44. ^ "Hall of Fame | Princeton Debate Panel". Princeton University. April 16, 2012. Retrieved September 9, 2022.
  45. ^ Mazzei, Patricia (February 26, 2022). "How a High School Debate Team Shaped Ketanji Brown Jackson". The New York Times. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  46. ^ Ray, Justin (March 12, 2018). "Amid a sea of voices, Vox's Carlos Maza breaks through". Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  47. ^ Sotomaayor, Sonia (August 28, 2010). Clip of Diversity and the Legal Profession (Videotape). Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  48. ^ Tavernise, Sabrina (June 24, 2019). "How Elizabeth Warren Learned to Fight". The New York Times. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
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