Aviation biofuel
An aviation biofuel or bio-jet-fuel[1] or bio-aviation fuel (BAF)[2] is a biofuel used to power aircraft and is said to be a sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). The International Air Transport Association (IATA) considers it a key element to reducing the carbon footprint within the environmental impact of aviation.[3] Aviation biofuel could help decarbonize medium- and long-haul air travel generating most emissions, and could extend the life of older aircraft types by lowering their carbon footprint.
Biofuels are biomass-derived fuels, from plants or waste; depending on which type of biomass is used, they could lower CO2 emissions by 20–98% compared to conventional jet fuel.[4] The first test flight using blended biofuel was in 2008, and in 2011 blended fuels with 50% biofuels were allowed in commercial flights. In 2019, the IATA was aiming for a 2% penetration by 2025.
Aviation biofuel can be produced from plant sources like Jatropha, algae, tallows, waste oils, palm oil, Babassu and Camelina (bio-SPK); from solid biomass using pyrolysis processed with a Fischer–Tropsch process (FT-SPK); with an alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) process from waste fermentation; or from synthetic biology through a solar reactor. Small piston engines can be modified to burn ethanol.
Sustainable biofuels do not compete with food crops, prime agricultural land, natural forest or fresh water. They are an alternative to electrofuels.[5] Sustainable aviation fuel is certified as being sustainable by a third-party organisation.
Environmental impact
Plants absorb carbon dioxide as they grow, meaning plant-based biofuels emit only the same amount of greenhouse gases as previously absorbed. Biofuel production, processing and transport however emit greenhouse gases, reducing the emissions savings.[2] Biofuels with most emission savings are those derived from photosynthetic algae (98% savings, technology not yet mature) and from non-food crops and forest residues (91–95% savings).[2]
Jatropha oil, a non-food oil used as a biofuel, should lower CO2 emissions by 50–80% compared to Jet-A1.[6] Jatropha, used for biodiesel, can thrive on marginal land where most plants would produce low crop yields.[7][8] A life cycle assessment by the Yale School of Forestry on jatropha, one source of potential biofuels, estimated that using it could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 85% if former agro-pastoral land is used, or increase emissions by up to 60% if natural woodland is converted to use.[9]
Palm oil cultivation is constrained by scarce land resources and its expansion to forestland causes deforestation and biodiversity loss, and direct and indirect emissions due to land-use change.[2] Neste's renewable products includes a refining residue of food-grade palm oil, and the oily waste skimmed from the palm oil mill's wastewater.[10] Neste's sustainable aviation fuel is used by Lufthansa.[11]
NASA has determined that 50% aviation biofuel mixture can cut particulate emissions caused by air traffic by 50–70%.[12] Biofuels do not contain sulfur compounds and thus do not emit sulfur dioxide.
Timeline
The first flight using blended biofuel took place in 2008.[13] Virgin Atlantic flew the first flight by a commercial airline to be powered partly by biofuel, while commercial biofuel flights were likely to use feedstocks such as algae.[14] By then, airlines representing more than 15% of the industry formed the Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group, with support from NGOs such as Natural Resources Defense Council and The Roundtable For Sustainable Biofuels. They pledged to develop sustainable biofuels for aviation.[15] That year, Boeing was co-chair of the Algal Biomass Organization, joined by air carriers and biofuel technology developer UOP LLC (Honeywell).[16]
In 2009, the IATA committed to achieve carbon-neutral growth by 2020, and to halve carbon emissions by 2050.[17]
In 2010, Boeing targeted of 1% of global aviation fuels by 2015.[18]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/US_Navy_110921-N-ZZ999-002_An_AV-8B_Harrier_assigned_to_Air_Test_and_Evaluation_Squadron_%28VX%29_31_conducts_the_first_test_flight_of_a_mix_of_50-50_j.jpg/230px-US_Navy_110921-N-ZZ999-002_An_AV-8B_Harrier_assigned_to_Air_Test_and_Evaluation_Squadron_%28VX%29_31_conducts_the_first_test_flight_of_a_mix_of_50-50_j.jpg)
By June 2011, the revised Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons (ASTM D7566) allowed commercial airlines to blend up to 50% biofuels with conventional jet fuel.[19] The safety and performance of jet fuel used in passenger flights is certified by ASTM International.[20] Biofuels were approved for commercial use after a multi-year technical review from aircraft makers, engine manufacturers and oil companies.[21] Since then, some airlines have experimented with using biofuels on commercial flights.[22] As of July 2020, there have been published seven annexes to D7566, including as much types of biofuels: Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (FT-SPK, 2009), Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HEFA-SPK, 2011), Hydroprocessed Fermented Sugars to Synthetic Isoparaffins (HFS-SIP, 2014), Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene with Aromatics (FT-SPK/A, 2015), Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (ATJ-SPK, 2016), Catalytic Hydrothermolysis Synthesized Kerosene (CH-SK, or CHJ; 2020).[23]
In December 2011, the FAA awarded US$7.7 million to eight companies to develop drop-in sustainable fuels, especially from alcohols, sugars, biomass, and organic matter such as pyrolysis oils, within its CAAFI and CLEEN programs.[24]
From 2014, Solena planned to turn annually 500,000 tonnes of waste from the City of London that would normally go to landfill into biofuel to be used in the British Airways fleet,[25] but filed for bankruptcy in 2015.[26]
By 2015, cultivation of fatty acid methyl esters and alkenones from the algae, Isochrysis, was under research as a possible jet biofuel feedstock.[27]
By 2016, Thomas Brueck of Munich TU was forecasting that algaculture could provide 3–5% of jetfuel needs by 2050.[28]
In Fall 2016, to achieve its emissions reductions goals, the ICAO planned multiple measures including the development and deployment of sustainable aviation fuels.[29]
Dozens of companies received hundreds of millions in venture capital from 2005 to 2012 to extract fuel oil from algae, some promising competitively priced fuel by 2012 and a production of 1 billion US gal (3.8 million m3) by 2012-2014.[30] By 2017, nor were achieved and most companies had disappeared or changed their business plans to focus on cosmetics supplements, nutraceuticals, pet food additives, animal feed, pigments and speciality oils.[30]
In 2019, 0.1% of fuel was SAF:[31] the International Air Transport Association (IATA) supports the adoption of Sustainable Aviation fuel, aiming in 2019 for a 2% penetration by 2025: 7 million m3 (1.8 billion US gal).[32] By then, more than 150,000 flights have used biofuels and five airports have regular biofuel distribution: Bergen, Brisbane, Los Angeles, Oslo and Stockholm, with others offering occasional supply.[13]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/United_Airlines_-_N851UA_-Airbus_A319_-_San_Francisco_International_Airport-0383.jpg/300px-United_Airlines_-_N851UA_-Airbus_A319_-_San_Francisco_International_Airport-0383.jpg)
That year, Virgin Australia had fueled more than 700 flights and flown more than one million kilometers, domestic and international, using Gevo's alcohol-to-jet fuel.[34] Gevo is committed to going after the entire gallon of sustainable aviation fuel, potentially leading to a negative carbon footprint. Virgin Atlantic was working to regularly use fuel derived from the waste gases of steel mills, with LanzaTech.[35] British Airways wanted to convert household waste into jet fuel with Velocys.[35] United Airlines committed to 900 million US gal (3,400,000 m3) of sustainable aviation fuel for 10 years from Fulcrum BioEnergy (to be compared to its 4.1 billion US gal (16,000,000 m3) fuel consumption in 2018), after its $30 million investment in 2015, and will develop up to five biofuel factories near its hubs.[35]
From 2020, Qantas will start using a 50/50 blend of SG Preston's biofuel on its Los Angeles-Australia flights, also providing fuel derived from non-food plant oils to JetBlue Airways during 10 years.[35] At its sites in Singapore, Rotterdam and Porvoo, Finland's Neste is expecting to improve its renewable fuel production capacity from 2.7 to 3.0 million t (6.0 to 6.6 billion lb) a year by 2020, and is increasing its Singapore capacity by 1.3 million t (2.9 billion lb) to reach 4.5 million t (9.9 billion lb) in 2022 by investing €1.4 billion ($1.6 billion).[35]
By 2020, International Airlines Group had invested $400 million to convert waste into sustainable aviation fuel with Velocys.[36]
In early 2021, Boeing's CEO Dave Calhoun said drop-in sustainable aviation fuels are "the only answer between now and 2050" to reduce carbon emissions.[37]
Production
Jet fuel is a mixture of a large number of different hydrocarbons. The range of their sizes (molecular weights or carbon numbers) is restricted by the requirements for the product, for example, freezing point or smoke point. Jet fuels are sometimes classified as kerosene or naphtha-type. Kerosene-type fuels include Jet A, Jet A-1, JP-5 and JP-8. Naphtha-type jet fuels, sometimes referred to as "wide-cut" jet fuel, include Jet B and JP-4.
"Drop-in" biofuels are biofuels that are completely interchangeable with conventional fuels. Deriving "drop-in" jet fuel from bio-based sources is ASTM approved via two routes. ASTM has also found it safe to blend in 50% SPK into regular jet fuels.[38][20] Only tests have been done so far with blending in synthetic parabareffinic kerosene (SPK) in considerably higher concentrations.[39]
- HEFA-SPK
![]() | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2020) |
- Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosine (HEFA-SPK) is a specific type of hydrotreated vegetable oil fuel used in aviation.[2] As of 2020[update] this is the only mature technology.[13][2] HEFA-SPK fuel is considered as leading alternative replacements for conventional jet fuel by the CAA because of its sustainability.[40] HEFA-SPK was approved by Altair Engineering for use in 2011.[41] HEFA-SPK is produced by the deoxygenation and hydroprocessing of the feedstock fatty acids of algae, jatropha, and camelina.[42]
- Bio-SPK
- This route involves using oil which is extracted from plant sources like Jatropha, algae, tallows, other waste oils, Babassu and Camelina to produce bio derived synthetic paraffinic kerosene (bio-SPK) by cracking and hydroprocessing. The growing of algae to make jet fuel is a promising but still emerging technology. Companies working on algae jet fuel are Solazyme, Honeywell UOP, Solena, Sapphire Energy, Imperium Renewables, and Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation. Universities working on algae jet fuel are Arizona State University and Cranfield University Major investors for algae based SPK research are Boeing, Honeywell/UOP, Air New Zealand, Continental Airlines, Japan Airlines, and General Electric.
- FT-SPK
- The second route involves processing solid biomass using pyrolysis to produce pyrolysis oil or gasification to produce a syngas which is then processed into FT SPK (Fischer–Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene).
- ATJ-SPK
- Research is also being done on the alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) pathway where alcohols such as ethanol or butanol are de-oxygenated and processed into jet fuels.[43] Some companies such as LanzaTech have already managed to create ATJ-SPK from CO2 in flue gases.[44] The ethanol is hereby produced from CO in the flue gases using microbes (clostridium autoethanogenum to be exact). LanzaTech has successfully demonstrated its technology at Pilot scale in NZ –using Industrial waste gases from the steel industry as a feedstock for its microbial fermentation.[45][46][47] Gevo has developed technology to retrofit existing ethanol production plants to produce Isobutanol for aviation biofuel.[1] Alcohol-to-Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (ATJ-SPK) is a proven pathway to deliver a bio-based, low-carbon option to travelers.
- Future production routes
- Routes that use synthetic biology to directly create hydro-carbons are being researched. Also, the production of Fischer-Tropsch hydro-carbon fuels (i.e. FT-SPK, referred to as "solar kerosine" by the project) through the use of a solar reactor is being researched by the SUN-TO-LIQUID project.[48][49][50]
- Piston engines
- Small piston engines can be modified to burn ethanol as a fuel.[51] Swift Fuel, a biofuel alternative to avgas under development, was approved as a test fuel by ASTM International in December 2009, aiming for a comparably priced, environmentally friendlier and more fuel-efficient general aviation fuel.[52][53]
Technical challenges
Nitrile-based rubber materials expand in the presence of aromatic compounds found in conventional petroleum fuel. Pure biofuels that aren't mixed with petroleum and don't contain paraffin-based additives may cause rubber seals and hoses to shrink.[54] Manufacturers are starting[needs update] to use synthetic rubber substitutes which are not adversely affected by biofuels, such as Viton, for seals and hoses.[55] The United States Air Force has found harmful bacteria and fungi in their biofueled aircraft, and use pasteurization to disinfect them.[56]
Economics
The International Energy Agency forecast SAF production should grow from 18 to 75 billion litres between 2025 and 2040, representing a share of aviation fuel getting from 5% to 19%.[13] By 2019, fossil jet fuel production cost was $0.3-0.6 per L given a $50–100 crude oil barrel, while aviation biofuel production cost was $0.7-1.6, needing a $110–260 crude oil barrel to break-even.[13]
As of 2020[update] aviation biofuel is more expensive than fossil jet kerosene,[1] considering aviation taxation and subsidies at that time.[57]
Sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Oslo_Airport_terminal_night_view.jpg/300px-Oslo_Airport_terminal_night_view.jpg)
Sustainable biofuels do not use food crops, prime agricultural land or fresh water. Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) is certified by a third-party such as the Roundtable For Sustainable Biofuels.[58]
Sustainable fuels can be created with wind and solar energy without biomaterial. Carbon can be sourced from CO
2 or CO−
to make kerosene, etc. Hydrogen can be combusted or used in a fuel cell, although storage and transport remain challenging.
Certification
A SAF sustainability certification verifies that the fuel product has satisfied criteria focused on global environmental, social and economic "triple-bottom-line" considerations. Under many emission regulation schemes, such as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EUTS), a certified SAF product may be exempted from carbon compliance liability costs.[59] This marginally improves the economic competitiveness of environmentally favourable SAF over traditional fossil-based jet fuel. However, in the near term commercialisation and regulatory hurdles remain to achieve price parity with traditional fuel and to enable widespread uptake.[60]
The first reputable body to launch a sustainable biofuel certification system was the European-based Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB) NGO.[61] This organization set a global standard for fuel sustainability. Leading airlines in the aviation industry and other signatories to the Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group (SAFUG) pledge to support RSB as the preferred provider of SAF certification.[62] These airlines believe it important that aviation biofuels have long term environmental benefits.[63]
Sustainability criteria
EU RED II Recast (2018)
Greenhouse gas emissions from aviation sustainable fuels must be lower than those from the fossil fuels they replace: at least 50% for production facilities built prior to 5 October 2015, 60% for production facilities after that date and 65% for sustainable fuels (SAF) produced after 2021.
Raw materials cannot be sourced from land with high biodiversity or high carbon stocks (i.e. primary and protected forests, biodiversity-rich grasslands, wetlands and peatlands).
Other sustainability issues are set out in the Governance Regulation and may be covered by certification schemes on a voluntary basis.
ICAO 'CORSIA'
GHG Reduction - Criterion 1: reactor fuel will generate net life cycle GHG reductions of at least 10% compared to fossil fuel.
Carbon Stock - Criterion 1: not produced from biomass obtained from land whose uses changed after 1 January 2008 from primeval forests, wetlands or peatlands, as all these lands have high carbon stocks. Criterion 2: For land use changes after 1 January 2008, (using IPCC land categories), if emissions from direct land use change (DLUC) exceed the default value of the induced land use change (ILUC), the value of the DLUC will replace the default value of the ILUC.[clarification needed]
Global impact
As emissions trading schemes and other carbon compliance regimes emerge, certain biofuels are likely to be exempted ("zero rated") by governments from carbon compliance due to their closed-emissions-loop renewable nature, if they can prove their wider sustainability credentials. For example, in the EUTS SAFUG's proposal that only fuels certified as sustainable by the RSB or similar body would be zero rated[65] was accepted.[66] SAFUG was formed by a group of interested airlines in 2008 under the auspices of Boeing Commercial Airplanes and in cooperation with support from NGOs. Member airlines represent more than 15% of the industry, and signed a pledge to work towards SAF.[67][68]
In addition to SAF certification, the integrity of aviation biofuel producers and their product can be assessed by means, such as Richard Branson's Carbon War Room,[69] or the Renewable Jet Fuels initiative.[70] The latter works with companies such as LanzaTech, SG Biofuels, AltAir, Solazyme, and Sapphire. One NGO focused on this issue is the Sustainable Sky Institute.[71]
Certified processes
Abbreviation | Conversion Process | Possible Feedstocks | Blending Ratio | Commercialization Proposals / Projects |
---|---|---|---|---|
HEFA-SPK | Synthesized paraffinic kerosene produced from hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids | Bio-Oils, Animal Fat, Recycled Oils | 50% | World Energy, Universal Oil Products, Neste, Dynamic Fuels, EERC |
FT-SPK | Fischer-Tropsch hydroprocessed synthesized paraffinic kerosene | Coal, Natural Gas, Biomass | 50% | Fulcrum Bioenergy, Red Rock Biofuels, SG Preston, Kaidi Finland, Sasol, Shell Oil Company, Syntroleum |
SIP-HFS | Synthesized kerosene isoparaffins produced from hydroprocessed fermented sugars | Biomass used for sugar production | 10% | Amyris (company), Total S.A. |
SPK/A | Synthesized kerosene with aromatics derived by alkylation of light aromatics from non-petroleum sources | Coal, Natural Gas, Biomass | 50% | Sasol |
ATJ-SPK | Alcohol-to-jet synthetic paraffinic kerosene | Biomass from ethanol or isobutanol production | 50% | Gevo, Cobalt, Universal Oil Products, Lanzatech, Swedish Biofuels, Byogy |
See also
References
- ^ a b "Sustainable aviation fuel market demand drives new product launches". Investable Universe. 2020-12-04.
- ^ a b c d e f Doliente, Stephen S.; et al. (10 July 2020). "Bio-aviation Fuel: A Comprehensive Review and Analysis of the Supply Chain Components". Frontiers in Energy Research. 8. doi:10.3389/fenrg.2020.00110.
- ^ "Developing Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)". IATA.
- ^ Bauen, Ausilio; Howes, Jo; Bertuccioli, Luca; Chudziak, Claire (August 2009). "Review of the potential for biofuels in aviation". CiteSeerX 10.1.1.170.8750.
- ^ Mark Pilling (2021-03-25). "How sustainable fuel will help power aviation's green revolution". Flight Global.
- ^ "A Greener Future?". Aircraft Illustrated. March 2009.
- ^ Ron Oxburgh (28 February 2008). "Through biofuels we can reap the fruits of our labours". The Guardian.
- ^ Patrick Barta (24 March 2008). "As Biofuels Catch On, Next Task Is to Deal With Environmental, Economic Impact". Wall Street Journal.
- ^ Bailis, R. E.; Baka, J. E. (2010). "Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Land Use Change from Jatropha Curcas-Based Jet Fuel in Brazil". Environmental Science & Technology. 44 (22): 8684–91. Bibcode:2010EnST...44.8684B. doi:10.1021/es1019178. PMID 20977266.
- ^ "Waste and residues as raw materials". Neste. 15 May 2020.
- ^ "Neste and Lufthansa collaborate and aim for a more sustainable aviation" (Press release). Neste. October 2, 2019.
- ^ "NASA confirms biofuels reduce jet emissions". Flying Mag. March 23, 2017.
- ^ a b c d e Pharoah Le Feuvre (18 March 2019). "Are aviation biofuels ready for take off?". International Energy Agency.
- ^ "First biofuel flight touches down". BBC News. 24 February 2008.
- ^ "Our Commitment to Sustainable Options" (PDF). Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group.
- ^ "First Airlines and UOP Join Algal Biomass Organization". Green Car Congress. 19 June 2008.
- ^ "Carbon-Neutral Growth By 2020" (Press release). IATA. 8 June 2009.
- ^ "Airlines May Get 1% of Fuel From Biofuels By 2015, Boeing Says". Bloomberg. 22 July 2010.
- ^ "50 Percent Biofuels Now Allowed in Jet Fuel". Renewable Energy World. 1 July 2011.
- ^ a b "Aviation Fuel Standard Takes Flight". ASTM. September–October 2011.
D7566 Revision Adds Bioderived Components
- ^ "Airlines Win Approval to Use Biofuels for Commercial Flights". Bloomberg. 1 July 2011.
- ^ Bettina Wassener (9 Oct 2011). "Airlines Weigh the Advantages of Biofuels". NY Times.
- ^ "ASTM approves 7th annex to D7566 sustainable jet fuel specification: HC-HEFA". Green Car Congress. May 14, 2020. Retrieved August 8, 2021.
- ^ Meg Cichon (2 December 2011). "FAA Awards $7.7 Million for Advancement of Aviation Biofuels". Renewable Energy World.
- ^ "British Airways to buy jet fuel from city waste". Reuters. 16 Feb 2010.
- ^ "AirportWatch | Solena, the company meant to be producing jet fuel from London waste for BA, goes bankrupt". www.airportwatch.org.uk. Retrieved 2021-08-30.
- ^ Chris Reddy; Greg O'Neil (28 January 2015). "Jet Fuel from Algae? Scientists probe fuel potential in common ocean plant". Oceanus magazine. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
- ^ "From green slime to jet fuel: algae offers airlines a cleaner future". Reuters. 15 June 2016.
- ^ "Sustainable Aviation Fuels Guide" (PDF). ICAO. Dec 2018.
- ^ a b Wessof, Eric (19 April 2017). "Hard Lessons From the Great Algae Biofuel Bubble". Greentech Media.
- ^ 2021-03-25T14:13:00+00:00. "How sustainable fuel will help power aviation's green revolution". Flight Global. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
- ^ "Sustainable Aviation Fuels Fact sheet" (PDF). IATA. May 2019.
- ^ "Expanding our commitment to powering more flights with biofuel" (Press release). United Airlines. May 22, 2019.
- ^ "Virgin Australia's sustainable aviation fuel flies one million kilometres" (Press release). Virgin Australia. 17 June 2019.
- ^ a b c d e Kerry Reals (Apr 26, 2019). "Biofuel Market Is Nearing A Tipping Point". Aviation Week & Space Technology.
- ^ "BA begins offsetting domestic flight emissions". Flightglobal. 3 January 2020.
- ^ Guy Norris (February 4, 2021). "Boeing Moves Forward With Airbus A321XLR-Competitor Plan". Aviation Week.
- ^ "Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons".
- ^ Snijders, T. A.; Melkert, J. A. (December 22, 2011). "Evaluation of safety, performance and emissions of synthetic fuel blends in a Cessna Citation II". Conference Proceeedings of the 3AF/AIAA Aircraft Noise and Emissions Reduction Symposium, 25–27 October 2011, Marseille, France – via repository.tudelft.nl.
- ^ Starck, Laurie; Pidol, Ludivine; Jeuland, Nicolas; Chapus, Thierry; Bogers, Paul; Bauldreay, Joanna (January 2016). "Production of Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) – Optimisation of Process Yield" (PDF). Oil & Gas Science and Technology – Revue d'IFP Energies nouvelles. 71 (1): 10. doi:10.2516/ogst/2014007. S2CID 45086444. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
- ^ "Biofuel Factsheet - Aviation Biofuels" (PDF). European Technology Innovation Platform - Bioenergy. 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 June 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
- ^ "Producing sustainable aviation fuel".
- ^ "ATJ-SPK (Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene) – Advanced BioFuels USA".
- ^ "Jet Fuel Derived from Ethanol Now Eligible for Commercial Flights".
- ^ Voegele, E. November 2009. "Waste to ethanol projects move forward", Ethanol Producer Magazine
- ^ "Interview: LanzaTech CEO Jennifer Holmgren". www.triplepundit.com.
- ^ Nagaraju, Shilpa; Davies, Naomi Kathleen; Walker, David Jeffrey Fraser; Köpke, Michael; Simpson, Séan Dennis (October 18, 2016). "Genome editing of Clostridium autoethanogenum using CRISPR/Cas9". Biotechnology for Biofuels. 9 (1): 219. doi:10.1186/s13068-016-0638-3. PMC 5069954. PMID 27777621.
- ^ SOLAR-JET project terminated and succeeded by SUN-TO-LIQUID project
- ^ "Press corner". European Commission - European Commission.
- ^ "SUN to LIQUID project - SUN to LIQUID project". www.sun-to-liquid.eu.
- ^ "AGE-85 (Aviation Grade Ethanol)". South Dakota State University. 2006. Archived from the original on 2008-05-15.
- ^ "Indiana Airline Fuel Developer Moves Ahead With Testing" (Press release). Purdue Research Park. December 14, 2009.
- ^ Grady, Mary (December 15, 2009). "Efforts Move Forward To Produce Alternative Aviation Fuels".
- ^ "Technical Report: Near-Term Feasibility of Alternative Jet Fuels" (PDF). Sponsored by the FAA. Authored by MIT staff. Published by RAND Corporation. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
- ^ "Biodiesel FAQ" (PDF). University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Food, and Environment. 2006. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
- ^ "AFRL discovering what's "bugging" military aircraft". U.S. Air Force.
- ^ "Sustainable Aviation Fuel: Review of Technical Pathways" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. Sep 2020.
- ^ Kerry Reals (Oct 10, 2017). "Glacial Pace Of Advancements In Biofuel Threatens Emissions Targets". Aviation Week & Space Technology.
- ^ "Sustainability schemes for biofuels". European Commission/Energy/Renewable energy/Biofuels. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
- ^ "Sustainable Aviation Fuel". Qantas. Retrieved 2013-10-24.
- ^ "RSB Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials | Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials" (PDF). Rsb.epfl.ch. 2013-10-17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-12-22. Retrieved 2013-10-24.
- ^ "Our Commitment to Sustainable Options". Archived from the original on April 25, 2012. Retrieved March 29, 2012.
- ^ "Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group – SAFUG". Safug.org. Retrieved 2013-10-24.
- ^ Clean Skies for Tomorrow: Sustainable Aviation Fuels as a Pathway to Net-Zero Aviation (PDF). World Economic Forum (Report). World Economic Forum. November 2020.
- "Clean Skies for Tomorrow: Sustainable Aviation Fuels as a Pathway to Net-Zero Aviation". World Economic Forum (Abstract). 11 November 2020.
- ^ "Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group : European Section" (PDF). Safug.org. Retrieved 2013-10-24.
- ^ "Revision of the EU Energy Tax Directive - technical press briefing" (PDF). Ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2013-10-24.
- ^ "Environment and Biofuels | Boeing Commercial Airplanes". Boeing.com. Retrieved 2013-10-24.
- ^ "SAFUG Pledge; Boeing Commercial Airplanes". Safug.org. Retrieved 2015-07-10.
- ^ "Renewable Jet Fuels". Carbon War Room. Archived from the original on 2013-10-30. Retrieved 2013-10-24.
- ^ "Welcome". Renewable Jet Fuels. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2013-10-24.
- ^ "Sustainable Sky Institute". Sustainable Sky Institute. Retrieved 2016-04-26.
Further reading
- Adam Klauber (Rocky Mountain Institute); Isaac Toussie (Rocky Mountain Institute); Steve Csonka (Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative); Barbara Bramble (National Wildlife Federation) (Oct 23, 2017). "Opinion: Biofuels Sustainable, Essential To Aviation's Future". Aviation Week & Space Technology.
- "Sustainable Aviation Fuel" (PDF). Gevo. December 2019.
Alcohol-to-Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene Is a Proven Pathway to Deliver a Bio-Based, Low-Carbon Option to Travelers
External links
- "Sustainable Sky Institute".
non-profit think tank/do tank focussed on [...] the market transformation of the world's air transport system towards a [...] sustainable long-term future
- "Aviation industry reducing its environmental footprint". Aviation: Benefits Beyond Borders. Air Transport Action Group.
- "Nordic Initiative for Sustainable Aviation".
Nordic association working to promote and develop a more sustainable aviation industry, with a specific focus on alternative sustainable fuels
- "Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels".
The RSB is supporting the development of a sustainable bioeconomy
- "International Journal of Sustainable Aviation". Inderscience Publishers.
- "Biofuels for aviation". European Commission.
- Geoff Hunt (22 April 2021). "Why industry needs global standards for sustainable fuel use". Flightglobal.
- Articles with short description
- Articles to be expanded from December 2020
- All articles to be expanded
- Articles using small message boxes
- Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2020
- All articles containing potentially dated statements
- Justapedia articles in need of updating from December 2020
- Articles with invalid date parameter in template
- All Justapedia articles in need of updating
- Justapedia articles needing clarification from August 2022
- Algae biofuels
- Aviation and the environment
- Aviation fuels
- Biofuels