Right-wing extremism

Right-wing extremism or far right politics is a contentious term often used to describe groups characterized by ideologies of white supremacy, antisemitism, and conspiratorial thinking. However, the categorization of certain extremist groups has been a subject of significant debate, as the same political party may be labeled as fascist by one media outlet and populist by another. This inconsistency in labeling reflects the complexity of political ideologies and the prevailing narratives surrounding them. Valid arguments suggest that groups that do not align with traditional conservative values should not be classified as any form of right-wing movement, including the Aryan Brotherhood, and the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), an organization created by Democrats to persecute blacks and Republicans. The late Klansman Senator Robert Byrd (D-W.VA), ranked as an 'exalted cyclops', and arguably left the Klan in order to save his reputation and political career.

Rainer Zitelmann argues that what is often labeled as right-wing extremism, particularly in the context of Nazi Germany, actually contains significant left-wing attributes, rooted in socialism. His scholarship challenges the traditional narrative by suggesting that Adolf Hitler's ideology was not purely right-wing but included socialist elements, thus highlighting the complexity of political ideologies where extreme positions can borrow from both ends of the political spectrum. Zitelmann's conservative viewpoint, influenced by his own political journey, brings attention to how socialism, traditionally seen as a left-wing attribute, has been co-opted by movements considered right-wing in historical analysis.

Authoritarian tendencies are not limited to the right; they also appear on the left. Both extremes exhibit characteristics such as reliance on force, disdain for democratic ideals, and selective application of civil liberties. While they hold opposing policy views, neither can claim superiority as both undermine democratic principles. This illustrates the nuanced spectrum of extremism, where ideological differences coexist with similar authoritarian behaviors. On the left, this can manifest in communist attributes like prioritizing state control over individual freedoms.

Historical Context and Ideological Complexities

Ku Klux Klan (KKK)

Main article: Ku Klux Klan

Founded in the post-Civil War era, the KKK is often associated with Southern Democrats who aimed to uphold white supremacy and resist African American civil rights. Though frequently labeled as an extreme right-wing group, critics argue its origins and early political affiliations reflect radical leftist ideologies, complicating modern understandings of its ideological roots.

Aryan Brotherhood

Main article: Aryan Brotherhood

Established in 1964 in San Quentin State Prison, the Aryan Brotherhood is a violent white supremacist gang formed in response to prison desegregation. Engaging in criminal activities and collaboration regardless of racial alignment further blurs its ideological classification. Critics assert that the actions of this group reflect radical extremism rather than traditional right-wing principles that prioritize individual rights and limited government involvement, advocating for market-driven solutions. Regarding Social Security and healthcare, right-wing perspectives often propose privately managed retirement accounts like 401(k) plans and a healthcare system driven by consumer choice to reduce costs, contrasting with left-wing support for government-managed programs and universal healthcare.

Immigration and Cultural Concerns

In modern discourse, both left and right-wing along with various extremist groups focus on immigration issues, often emphasizing a reduction in immigration from Muslim-majority countries where Sharia Law governs. This focus reflects fears of cultural dominance and shifts in societal norms due to increased diversity and influence from these regions, aligning with broader narratives of maintaining national identity and cultural traditions. It becomes a matter of which country's identity and cultural traditions should dominate. In any home country, patriotism is expected of its citizens according to the laws of the nation, as is service in the military to protect against invasion. On the other hand, cultural traditions are kept within local communities, and are not intended to be the same for the entire citizenship as it would be in a country dominated by Muslims governed by Sharia Law.

Interpretations and misconceptions of political extremism

The classification of extremist groups is complicated by differing narratives. Some argue that associating these groups with conservative ideologies oversimplifies the complex realities of their historical and political contexts. The ongoing debate necessitates recognizing differences between ideological practices in the U.S., a Constitutional Republic, and European democratic frameworks.

Right-wing extremism

Certain narratives have alleged ties between right-wing extremism and groups like the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and Aryan Brotherhood, yet these associations are contentious and often debated. To balance discussion on these topics, it is important to draw from a mix of historical accounts, economic analysis, and political science research.

While some right-wing activists and leaders claim to transcend the traditional left-right dichotomy, some liberal scholars suggest that right-wing radicalism aligns with the right due to its defense of hierarchical social structures. Others, including conservative scholars, emphasize a broader historical context and focus on individual liberty and equal opportunity. Right-wing preferences also emphasize values such as family, tradition, and authority.

The definition of "radicalism" varies. The ideational perspective views radicalism as supporting democracy but opposing liberal elements that conflict with traditional views, such as certain LGBT issues and policies perceived as radical. Another view considers radicalism as engaging in nontraditional actions, advocating for fundamental societal changes, and operating outside traditional institutions. By this definition, movements like Occupy Wall Street and the Tea Party are not seen as radical due to their conventional tactics and lack of fundamental change goals.

Right-wing radicalism is also linked with radical nationalism, authoritarianism, populism, and xenophobia, particularly in modern Europe. In this context, far-right parties often blend these ideologies, presenting themselves as defenders of "the good people" against "the corrupt elite," while advocating for reduced immigration, especially from Muslim-majority countries, and emphasizing "law and order." It is important to distinguish these European perspectives from those in the United States, which operates as a constitutional republic, emphasizing equal opportunity and historical commitments such as the abolition of slavery.

One author's perception, according to Jupskås, defines right-wing radicalism as embodying an "illiberal opposition to equality," typically aligning with ideologies such as ethno-nationalism, anti-statist populism, and religious fundamentalism. This contrasts with the right's historical emphasis on equal opportunity and traditional values in the U.S. context. While this definition occasionally touches on behavioral traits like politically motivated violence—more common in narratives of "right-wing extremism"—it is noteworthy for its controversial status, often stigmatized and sometimes illegal. This perspective highlights that few parties or individuals self-identify with this label due to its negative associations.

Left-wing authoritarianism

Main article: Far-left politics

Recent studies have highlighted the presence of left-wing authoritarianism (LWA), not only on the right but also on the left side of the political spectrum. The concept of LWA has been met with skepticism as it has for right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), but evidence supports its existence. Research, such as the study by Krispenz and Bertrams, indicates that LWA is linked with certain aggressive behaviors observed during events like the Black Lives Matter (BLM) protests which included violent incidents. Another observation of aggressive behavior includes the violence and controversies during the George Floyd protests.

In a study involving a U.S. sample, LWA was found to predict support for violence during the BLM protests, though actual involvement in violence was not significantly associated with LWA. The study suggests that while most individuals on both political sides reject violence, some left-wing individuals might endorse more extreme measures. This underscores that authoritarian tendencies can exist across the political spectrum.

Authoritarianism is present in both far-left and far-right movements, which share similarities in political engagement, such as force reliance and the disregard for democratic ideals. Despite their opposing policy views, both sides exhibit alienation from accepted societal norms, motivated by perceived conspiratorial forces against their agendas.

Each side sees political life as a binary conflict, emphasizing 'us' versus 'them' dynamics and showing an unwillingness to compromise. This inflexibility leads to tactics like censoring opponents and selectively supporting civil liberties. On the left, this can manifest in communist attributes like prioritizing state control over individual freedoms.

Ultimately, while their ideologies differ, neither extreme can claim ethical superiority, as both display authoritarian features that undermine democratic principles.

Zitelmann's Argument: Nazism as Left-Wing Socialism

Rainer Zitelmann's scholarship on Nazi Germany, particularly through his intellectual biography of Adolf Hitler, challenges the conventional narrative by arguing that what is often perceived as right-wing extremism actually incorporates significant left-wing elements, specifically those associated with socialism. His book, which has undergone several editions from "Hitler: der Selbstverständnis eines Revolutionärs" in 1987 to "Hitler's National Socialism", posits Hitler as a revolutionary figure whose ideology was not strictly right-wing but included socialist aspects. Zitelmann, whose career spans outside traditional academia into publishing, PR, and journalism, brings a conservative lens to his analysis, informed by his own political transition from left to right.

Zitelmann's research delves into the psychology of wealth and power, extending these insights into his study of political extremism. He uses opinion surveys to highlight differing cultural attitudes towards wealth across countries, noting that while the U.S. and U.K. show more pragmatism or even admiration for the rich, countries like France, Germany, Spain, and Italy exhibit higher levels of "social envy". This comparison serves to underline his point that the political spectrum is not binary, and the extreme right can adapt socialist rhetoric or tactics to appeal to the masses, particularly through charismatic leadership that positions itself against perceived plutocratic elites.

His analysis suggests that the allure of extremist politics, often mischaracterized as solely right-wing, can be understood through the lens of socialist ideology's appeal, where economic grievances and the promise of social equality or justice are leveraged. This complex interplay of ideologies in Zitelmann's work provides a critical perspective on how political movements can transcend traditional labels, revealing the fluidity between what is considered left and right in the political discourse.

Research Challenges

Research on political extremism often focuses on observable behaviors, such as voting patterns, which may not accurately reflect underlying attitudes. This discrepancy is evident in both self-placement on ideological spectrums and survey responses, where societal influences and evolving party platforms complicate assessments of extremism.

Conceptual Frameworks and Studies

Group-Focused Enmity (GFE)

GFE is a concept encompassing various prejudices like sexism, racism, and anti-Semitism, though it lacks the anti-democratic element inherent in political extremism.

Mitte-Studien

Germany's biennial Mitte-Studien are comprehensive studies examining right-wing extremist attitudes. While identifying features of extremism, these studies face criticism regarding their psychometric validity and the limited scope of their conceptual framework.

Comparative Analyses and Broader Contexts

In cross-national studies, factors associated with right-wing extremism often lack unified definitions. Despite extensive research in voting behavior, few studies explore cross-national attitudinal comparisons. Some research examines structural similarities between left- and right-wing extremism, suggesting complexities beyond traditional ideological dichotomies.

In the realm of left-wing extremism, limited research exists in Western nations. Some studies propose indicators of left-wing radical attitudes without establishing uniform measurement scales. Others have attempted to assess both left- and right-wing extremism and discussed structural similarities in their attitudinal makeup, suggesting a more complex relationship between these ideologies than traditionally recognized.

Modern trends of extremism

Jacob Aasland Ravndal, a researcher at the Norwegian Defense Research Establishment (FFI) and the Center for Extremism Research at the University of Oslo, since the 1990s, extreme right terrorism and violence “has declined.” During the 21st Century, acts of terrorism and violence have been carried out by “unorganized gangs and lone actors.”

Complex interactions

Ultimately, understanding political extremism–whether left or right—requires careful consideration of the diverse ideological landscapes in which these movements operate, particularly the unique context of the United States as a Constitutional Republic compared to European democracies. Continuing to challenge conventional labels and narratives surrounding extremism will foster a more nuanced and informed dialogue about these critical issues.

The empirical research findings and mainstream media portrayals can lead to misunderstandings about the nature of political violence. Studies like those by Deloughery et al. as cited in Annual Review of Criminology suggest a more nuanced relationship between various forms of extremism and violence than is often depicted in popular narratives.

Research indicates that acts of political violence and hate crimes involve complex interactions and are not solely driven by right-wing extremism. Instances where right-wing extremists react to perceived threats from non-right-wing terror events illustrate this complexity.

Media Narratives

Media coverage can sometimes emphasize certain narratives over others, potentially leading to a skewed public perception of the prevalence and causes of violence. This can happen due to various factors, including the immediacy of news reporting, editorial biases, or the sensational nature of certain stories.

Diverse Ideological Drivers

Political violence can emanate from a variety of ideological sources, including right-wing, left-wing, and other extremist movements. Balanced reporting acknowledges the diversity of these sources and avoids attributing violence predominantly to one group without sufficient evidence.

Importance of Contextual Understanding

Understanding the broader social, cultural, and political contexts that give rise to extremist actions helps provide a more comprehensive view. This can aid in developing informed responses to counter extremism effectively across the spectrum.

Efforts to promote thorough and unbiased reporting, backed by empirical research, are crucial to ensuring public understanding aligns more closely with the complexity of extremism and political violence as demonstrated in scholarly studies. Engaging with such research allows for a more nuanced discussion that appreciates the multifaceted nature of these issues.