Discharge of radioactive water of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant

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Water is stored in three types of facilities though there are occasional leaks.[1] Two varieties of above-ground water tanks are seen at the back, and the workers are working in an underground storage pool.[2]

Radioactive waste water has been discharged into the Pacific Ocean since the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, triggered by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011 in Japan. Most of the radioactive materials came from immediate leaks into the atmosphere, 80% of which eventually deposited over the Pacific (and over some rivers).[3] Leakage to groundwater has persisted since the disaster and was only first admitted by the nuclear plant in 2013.[4] Water treatment began that year as the "Advanced Liquid Processing System" became operable,[5] which is capable of removing most radionuclides except notably tritium, which has a half life of 12.32 years.[6] In 2021, the Japanese cabinet approved the dumping of ALPS-treated water containing 860 TBq (1.8 g (0.1 oz)) of tritium into the Pacific over a course of 30 years. The move faces concerns and criticism from other countries and international organisations.

Discharge to atmosphere

Caesium-137 concentration in the air, 19 March 2011

Among all radioactive materials discharged, most came from leaks into the atmosphere immediately after the disaster, which 80% eventually deposit over the Pacific (and some over rivers), according to the UNSCEAR report in 2020.[3] Specifically, "The total releases to the atmosphere of Iodine-131 and Caesium-137 ranged generally between about 100 to about 500 PBq [petabecquerel, 1015 Bq] and 6 to 20 PBq, respectively. The ranges correspond to about 2% to 8% of the total inventory of Iodine-131 and about 1% to 3% of the total inventory of Caesium-137 in the three operating units (Units 1–3)".[3]

Discharge to groundwater by leakage

Abukuma River was banned from fishing for 10 years for radioactivity reasons. It reopened in April 2021.[7]

Initially, as of June 2011, the biggest threat was the leakage of caesium from the nuclear reactors into the Pacific. Over time, groundwater became the main source for leaks. While soil naturally absorbs the caesium in groundwater, strontium and tritium flow more freely through the soil into the ocean.[8]

Despite repeated denial of leaks,[9] the operator of the nuclear plant, Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), on 22 July 2013 finally admitted that leaks to groundwater had been happening, something long suspected.[4][10] It was later determined the leaks came from the water tanks from 2013 to 2014.[1] Since then, TEPCO has had a record of being dishonest on its figures and has lost the public trust.[11][12][13][14][better source needed] For instance, in 2014, TEPCO blamed its own measuring method and revised the strontium in a groundwater well in July 2013 from 900,000 Bq/L to 5,000,000 Bq/L, which is 160,000 times the standard for discharge.[15]

The UNSCEAR report in 2020 concluded "Direct release of about 60 TBq [terabecquerel, 1012 Bq] of caesium-137 in ground water draining from the site up to October 2015, when measures were taken to reduce these releases, and about 0.5 TBq per year thereafter".[3]

Deposition on river

The indirect deposition to rivers come from the earlier direct discharge to the atmosphere. "Continuing indirect releases of about 5 to 10 TBq [terabecquerel, 1012 Bq] of Caesium-137 per year via rivers draining catchment areas", according to the UNSCEAR report in 2020.[3]

Discharge to ocean, untreated water (2011)

Sea water sampling supervised by IAEA staff (left).

On 5 April 2011, the operator of the nuclear plant, Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), discharged 11,500 tons of untreated water into the Pacific Ocean in order to free up storage space for water that is even more radioactive. The untreated water was the least radioactive contaminated among the stored water, but still 100 times the legal limit.[16][17] In May 2011, another 300,000 tons of untreated radioactive water were dumped to free up water tanks.[18]

The UNSCEAR report in 2020 determined "direct releases in the first three months amounting to about 10 to 20 PBq [petabecquerel, 1015 Bq] of Iodine-131 and about 3 to 6 PBq of Caesium-137".[3] About 82 percent having flowed into the sea before 8 April 2011.[19]

Discharge to ocean, treated water

Advanced Liquid Processing System (2013-)

"Metric ton" and "cubic meter" are used interchangably here.
One of the three types of water storage facilities at the power plant.[2]

In October 2012, TEPCO introduced the "Advanced Liquid Processing System" (ALPS, Japanese: 多核種除去設備), which is designed to remove radionuclides other than tritium.[20][21] ALPS works by first pre-processing the water by iron co-precipitation (removes alpha nuclides and organics) and carbonate co-precipitation (removes alkali earth elements including stronium). The water is then passed through 16 absorbent columns to remove nuclides.[22]: §1.1 [23] As tritium is not removed, the water will require dilution to meet drinkable standards.[6][24] Some experts additionally criticised the system for insufficiently removing carbon-14.[6]

Water to be treated by ALPS comes from colling for damaged reactor buildings, which is required to prevent nuclear meltdown. As of 2013, 400 metric tonnes of groundwater was seeping into the basements of buildings and became radioactive contaminated each day. The contaminated water is pumped out and combined into the reactor-cooling loop, which includes stronium–cesium removal (KURION, SURRY) and reverse osmosis desalination processes. Excess water, totaling 400 metric tonnes per day due to the aforementioned groundwater leak, is pumped to ALPS along with the concentrated saltwater from desalination.[25][23]

Japan's Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) approved the design of ALPS in March 2013. ALPS is to be run in three independent units and will be able to purify 250 tons of water per day.[5][26] Unit "A" started operation in April. In June, unit A was found to be leaking water and shut down. In July, the cause was narrowed down to chloride and hypochlorite corrosion of water tanks; TEPCO responded by adding a rubber layer into the tanks. By August, all systems were shut down awaiting repair. One unit was expected to come online by September, with full recovery planned by the end of 2013.[27]。

By September 2018, TEPCO reports that 20% of the water had been treated to the required level,[28] while admitting that 80% of the 'treated' water requires retreatment as it still contained excessive radionuclides such as cesium, cobalt, lithium, and strontium.[29][better source needed]

By 2020, the daily buildup of contaminated water was reduced to 170 metric tonnes thanks to groundwater isolation installations.[6] TEPCO reports that 72% of the water in its tanks, some from early trials of ALPS, needed to be repurified.[30] The portion of ready-to-discharge water raised to 34% by 2021,[31] and to 35% by 2023.[32]

Japanese approval and monitoring (2021-)

Prime Minister Suga holding a bottle of treated radioactive water and was affirmed "after diluting it would be drinkable". Fukushima plant, 2020.[33][34]

Since the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the nuclear plant has accumulated 1.25 million tonnes of waste water, stored in 1,061 tanks on the land of the nuclear plant, as of March 2021.[35] It will run out of land for water tanks by 2022.[35] It has been suggested the government could have solved the problem by allocating more land surrounding the power plant for water tanks, since the surrounding area had been designated as unsuitable for humans. Regardless, the government was reluctant to act.[36][37][38] Mainichi Shimbun criticized the government for showing "no sincerity" in "unilaterally push[ing] through with the logic that there will no longer be enough storage space"[11]

On 13 April 2021, the Cabinet of Prime Minister Suga unanimously approved that TEPCO dump the stored water to the Pacific Ocean over a course of 30 years. The Cabinet asserted the dumped water will be treated and diluted to drinkable standard.[39][40] The idea of dumping had been floated by Japanese experts and officials as early as June 2016.[5]

In April 2023, Japan's NRA announced a Comprehensive Radiation Monitoring Plan, in which the concentration of radionuclides in food (land and sea), soil, water, and air will be continually monitored across Japan. NRA also set up a system to monitor the radionuclide concentration in ALPS-processed water in order to verify TEPCO's readings.[22]: §3.5.2 [41]

International testing and final approval

An IAEA task force was dispatched to Japan in 2021 and release their first report in February 2022.[42] Among other findings, TEPCO has demonstrated to IAEA that their pump setup thoroughly mixes waters in tanks.[22]: §3.3.2 

In May 2023, 3 IAEA laboratories and 4 national laboratories participated in a interlaboratory comparison to verify TEPCO's testing of ALPS-treated water.[22]: §4.1  Out of the 30 radionuclides TEPCO regularly tests for, 12 were found to be above detection limits. 52 out of 53 results were found to agree with the combined result; the only problematic result was of I-129, where Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety reported a value too low compared to the weighted average. TEPCO's methology was found to be fit for purpose: although it is less sensitive for actinides than some participating labs, the detection limits were far enough from regulatory limits, and the alpha-emission screening test appears accurate enough. TEPCO's testing method for Am-141 may require additional review.[43] The same sample was tested by Japan's NRA with no disagreements found.[22]: §3.5.2 

Reactions to dumping

Official nuclear science panels

  • The Japanese expert panel "ALPS subcommittee", chaired by nuclear scientist Ichiro Yamamoto, released a report in January 2020 which calculated that discharging all the water to the sea in one year would cause a radiation dose of 0.81 microsieverts to the locals, therefore it is negligible as compared to the Japanese' natural radiation of 2,100 microsieverts per year.[44] Its calculations were endorsed by International Atomic Energy Agency.[45]

Japanese public

  • A panel of public policy professors pointed out the lack of research on the harmful effects of tritium. It also criticized the government being insincere on accepting alternative disposal proposals as the proposals were always shelved after "procedural" discussion.[12]
  • A survey by Asahi Shimbun in December 2020 found, among 2,126 respondents, that 55% of Japanese opposed dumping and 86% worried about international reception.[46]
  • The Fukushima Fishery Cooperatives was given written promises by TEPCO's CEO Hirose Naomi in 2015 that TEPCO would not dump the water before consulting the fishery industry.[47] The Cooperatives felt bypassed and betrayed by the government's decision.[5]

International reactions

  Japan
  In support
  Expressed concern but do not object
  In opposition
In opposition
  • Baskut Tuncak, United Nations's Special Rapporteur on toxics and human rights, wrote on Japan's Kyodo News that "The communities of Fukushima [...] It is their human right to [...] not be exposed deliberately to additional radioactive contamination. Those rights should be fully respected and not be disregarded by the government in Tokyo. [...] It saddens me to think that a country that has suffered the horrors of being the only country on which not one but two nuclear bombs would continue on a such a path in dealing with the radioactive aftermath of the Fukushima Daiichi disaster."[48] Greenpeace and five other UN Rapporteurs (including Clément Nyaletsossi Voule), respectively, issued condemnation echoing those sentiments.[49][50]
  • The U.S. National Association of Marine Laboratories, expressed their opposition to the plan and stated that “there was a lack of adequate and accurate scientific data supporting Japan’s assertion of safety".[51]
  • The Pacific Islands Forum expressed deep concerns and urged Japan to rethink its decision on the discharge of the ALPS Treated Water.[52]
On July 8, 2023, South Korean people held a rally to condemn Japan's dumping plan, reported by CNS
  • Various governments have voiced concerns, including the governments of South Korea,[53] North Korea,[54] Taiwan,[55] China,[56] Russia,[57] Germany,[58] the Philippines,[59] New Zealand,[60] Belize,[61] Costa Rica,[61] Dominican Republic,[61] El Salvador,[61] Guatemala,[61] Honduras,[61] Nicaragua,[61] Panama,[61] Mexico,[62] and Micronesia.[63]
  • At least 70 U.S. civic groups condemned Japan's wastewater discharge plan, and 17 civic organizations from various countries held protests in Berlin.[64][65]
  • Some questioned whether the water in the tanks had really been fully cleansed. Dalnoki-Veress said TEPCO had only analyzed small amounts of water from a quarter of its tanks and only measured concentrations of tritium and a limited number of other radionuclides. Ken Buesseler, a senior scientist at the United States’ Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) said tritium could be the "least dangerous" of the radionuclides in the waterm and that heavier nuclides is more likely to be enter the food chain.[29] (The Comprehensive Report addresses concerns about sampling / mixing and radionuclides tested; see above section.)[22]: §§3.4.2, 3.5.2 
  • There were concerns about the health impacts of long-term, low-dose exposure to tritium as a result of Japan's multi-decade plan to release the wastewater into the sea. Jinbo Party leader Yoon Hee-sook said that the Korean inspection team that visited the treatment facilities had failed to address the "biological threat two times more serious than cesium" that the wastewater discharge plan could cause.[66]
  • In June 2023, South Korean shoppers rushed to buy up salt and other items prior to the expected release of the treated discharge. The South Korean government had banned seafood from the waters near Fukushima and says it will closely monitor the radioactivity level of salt farms.[67] A similar salt rush occured in China, after the discharge began.[68]
  • The Green Party of the United States issued a press release opposing the discharge.[69]
  • In August 2023, in protest of the release of discharge the treated wastewater, protests began in South Korea, Hong Kong and Tokyo. In Seoul, protesters attempted to storm the Japanese embassy.[70]
  • Japanese shops reported receiving spam calls from China after the start of the discharge. The Japanese government responded by summoning the deputy minister at the Chinese embassy and informing him that such calls constitutes a criminal act in Japan.[71]
In support
  • International Atomic Energy Agency's top official Rafael Grossi reached a consensus with the Japanese on 23 March 2021, three weeks before the Japanese announced its decision to dump the water.[5]
  • U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken stated on 13 April 2021, “We thank Japan for its transparent efforts in its decision to dispose of the treated water”.[40] US Climate Envoy John Kerry expressed support.[72]
  • On 14 June 2023, Palau President Surangel Whipps Jr. gave support to Japan's plan to release the treated waste water to the sea, remarking "It really comes down to a matter of trust. [...] And the people who would be impacted most are their own people. So they have to make sure it's acceptable to their people. And if it's acceptable to their people, it should be acceptable to all of us." The comment was made following a visit to the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant.[73][74]
  • An International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) review released in 2023 concluded that Japan's plans to slowly release the treated wastewater from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station are in accordance with IAEA Safety Standards.[75]

Discharge in Pacific Ocean in 2023

On 22 August 2023, Japan announced that it would start releasing treated radioactive water from the tsunami-hit Fukushima nuclear plant into the Pacific Ocean in 48 hours, despite opposition from its neighbours.[76][77] Japan says the water is safe after the use of Advanced Liquid Processing System (ALPS), which removes nearly all traces of radiation from the wastewater, with tritium being the primary exception to this. As a result, Japan has commited to diluting the water in order to bring levels of tritium below the regulatory standards set by the International Atomic Energy Agency. This plan has been approved by the International Atomic Energy Agency.[78] But critics contend that more studies need to be done and the release should be halted.[79][80] On 24 August, Japan begun the discharge of treated waste water into the Pacific Ocean, sparking protests in the region and retaliation from China, who said it would block all imports of seafood from Japan.[80][81] Over 1 million tonnes of treated wastewater will be released by Japan over the next thirty years as per the plan.[82] The actions of the Japanese government has left people divided, resulting in continued fierce oppositon from Beijing, whilst a clear divide in public opinion is apparent in Japan and South Korea.[83][84]

On August 25, TEPCO reports that the amount of tritium in seawater around fukushima has remained below the detection limit of 10 Bq/L.[85] The Japanese Fishery Agency reports that fish caught 4 km away from the discharge pipe contained no detectable amounts of tritium.[86]

Environmental effects

See also: Radiation effects from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

General opinion

"There is consensus among scientists that the impact on health is minuscule, still, it can't be said the risk is zero, which is what causes controversy", Michiaki Kai, a Japanese nuclear expert, told AFP.[87] Scientists and officials claiming the treated water to be scientifically safe are generally met with skepticism as they have not publicly consumed the treated water themselves.[88] Also, presenting the science alone has yet to gain public trust, as TEPCO has a history of being dishonest on leaks while the government's attitude was deemed insincere by the public.[11][12][13][14]

Data on concentrations

Concentrations declined faster in coastal waters than in coastal sediments. By 2013, the concentrations of caesium-137 in the Fukushima coastal waters were around the level before the accident. However, coastal sediments are "influenced by inputs of caesium-137 bound to clay minerals in sediments. The inventory of caesium-137 in coastal sediments is now thought to exceed the inventory in the overlying water column, and the sediments could provide a long-term source of caesium-137 in seawater."[89]

Data on marine foods indicates their radioactive concentrations are falling towards initial levels. 41% of samples caught off the Fukushima coast in 2011 had caesium-137 concentrations above the legal limit (100 becquerels per kilogram), and this had declined to 0.05% in 2015.[89] United States Food and Drug Administration stated in 2021 that "FDA has no evidence that radionuclides from the Fukushima incident are present in the U.S. food supply at levels that are unsafe".[90] Yet, presenting the science alone has not helped customers to regain their trust on eating Fukushima fishery products.[13]

Comparison to other nuclear facilities

According to the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, as of April 2021, the total amount of tritium stored in Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant is about 860 terabecquerels (TBq). In comparison to the discharge of tritium from nuclear facilities across the world, see the table below. In 2018, La Hague reprocessing plant in France discharged 11,460 TBq of tritium, which is more than 13 times the total amount of tritium stored in Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant.[91] From 2010 to 2020, nuclear power plants in South Korea discharged a total of 4,362 TBq of tritium, which is more than 5 times the total amount of tritium stored in Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant.[92]

Annual discharge of tritium from nuclear facilities[91]
Location Nuclear facility Closest
waters		 Liquid
(TBq)		 Steam
(TBq)		 Total
(TBq)		 Total
(mg)		 year
 United Kingdom Heysham nuclear power station B Irish Sea 396 2.1 398 1,115 2019
 United Kingdom Sellafield reprocessing facility Irish Sea 423 56 479 1,342 2019
 Romania Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant Unit 1 Black Sea 140 152 292 872 2018
 France La Hague reprocessing plant English Channel 11,400 60 11,460 32,100 2018
 South Korea Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant and others Sea of Japan 211 154 365 1,022 2020[93]
 Taiwan Maanshan Nuclear Power Plant Luzon Strait 35 9.4 44 123 2015
 China Fuqing Nuclear Power Plant Taiwan Strait 52 0.8 52 146 2020
 China Sanmen Nuclear Power Station East China Sea 20 0.4 20 56 2020
 Canada Bruce Nuclear Generating Station A, B Great Lakes 756 994 1,750 4,901 2018
 Canada Darlington Nuclear Generating Station Great Lakes 220 210 430 1,204 2018
 Canada Pickering Nuclear Generating Station Units 1-4 Great Lakes 140 300 440 1,232 2015
 United States Diablo Canyon Power Plant Units1, 2 Pacific Ocean 82 2.7 84 235 2019

See also

References

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