Cambodia

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This article is about the country. For the song, see Cambodia (song).
"Kampuchea" redirects here. For other uses, see Kampuchea (disambiguation).

Kingdom of Cambodia
រាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជា (Khmer)
Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchéa (UNGEGN)
Motto: ជាតិ សាសនា មហាក្សត្រ
Chéatĕ, Sasânéa, Môhaksâtr
"Nation, Religion, Monarch"
Anthem: បទនគររាជ
Nôkôr Réach
"Majestic Kingdom"
Cambodia on the globe (Cambodia centered).svg
Location Cambodia ASEAN.svg
Location of Cambodia (green)

in ASEAN (dark grey)  –  [Legend]

CapitalPhnom Penh
11°33′N 104°55′E / 11.550°N 104.917°E / 11.550; 104.917
Official languageKhmer[1]
Official scriptKhmer[1]
Ethnic groups
(2019)
Religion
(2019)
Demonym(s)Cambodian
GovernmentUnitary dominant-party parliamentary elective constitutional monarchy
• Monarch
Norodom Sihamoni
Hun Sen
Say Chhum
Heng Samrin
LegislatureParliament
• Upper house
Senate
• Lower house
National Assembly
Formation
• Funan
68–550
• Chenla
550–802
802–1431
1431–1863
11 August 1863
9 November 1953
Area
• Total
181,035 km2 (69,898 sq mi) (88th)
• Water (%)
2.5
Population
• 2022 estimate
16,713,015[5] (72nd)
• Density
87/km2 (225.3/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
Increase$89.2 billion[6] (100th)
• Per capita
Increase $5,583[6] (145th)
GDP (nominal)2022 estimate
• Total
Increase$28.030 billion[6] (108th)
• Per capita
Increase $1,771[6] (152nd)
Gini (2013)36.0[7]
medium
HDI (2021)Decrease 0.593[8]
medium · 146th
Currency
[9][10]
Time zoneUTC+07:00 (ICT)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy
Driving sideright
Calling code+855
ISO 3166 codeKH
Internet TLD.kh
You may need rendering support to display the Khmer text in this article correctly.

Cambodia (/kæmˈboʊdiə/ (listen)),[11] officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of 181,035 square kilometres (69,898 square miles), bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, Vietnam to the east, and the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest.

In 802 AD, Jayavarman II declared themselves king, uniting the warring rulers of Chenla under the name "Kambuja".[12] This marked the beginning of the Khmer Empire. The Indianised kingdom facilitated the spread of first Hinduism and then Buddhism to Southeast Asia and undertook religious infrastructural projects. In 1863, Cambodia became a protectorate of France, and later was part of French Indochina. After a period of Japanese occupation during the Second World War, it gained independence from France in 1953. The Vietnam War extended into Cambodia in 1965 via the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk trails. A 1970 coup installed the US-aligned Khmer Republic, until being overthrown by the Khmer Rouge in 1975. The Khmer Rouge ruled the country and carried out the Cambodian genocide from 1975 until 1979, when they were ousted in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. The Vietnamese-occupied People's Republic of Kampuchea became the de facto government. Following the 1991 Paris Peace Accords, Cambodia was governed by a United Nations mission (1992–93). UN withdrew after holding elections in which around 90% of the registered voters cast ballots. The 1997 coup d'état consolidated power under Prime Minister Hun Sen and the Cambodian People's Party (CPP). While Cambodia is constitutionally a multi-party state,[13] CPP dominates the political system and dissolved the Cambodia National Rescue Party in 2017.[14]

The United Nations designates Cambodia as a least developed country.[15] Cambodia is a member of the United Nations, ASEAN, the RCEP, the East Asia Summit, WTO, the Non-Aligned Movement and La Francophonie. Agriculture remains the dominant economic sector, with growth in textiles, construction, garments, and tourism leading to increased foreign investment and international trade.[16]

Etymology

Main article: Names of Cambodia

The English Cambodia is an anglicisation of the French Cambodge, which in turn is the French transliteration of the Khmer កម្ពុជា (Kâmpŭchéa, pronounced [kampuciə]). The Khmer endonym កម្ពុជា Kâmpŭchéa derives from the Sanskrit name कम्बोजदेश Kambojadeśa, composed of देश Deśa ("land of" or "country of") and कम्बोज (Kamboja), referring to the descendants of Kambu (a legendary Indian sage from the Indian kingdom of Kamboja), whose descendant Kaundinya I (Hùntián (混塡) and Preah Thong (Khmer: ព្រះថោង)), a warrior belonging to the Kamboja-Pala dynasty, ruling over the historical region of Kalinga, situated on the Eastern Coastal Plains, went to war with the Nāga Queen Soma of the Funan region, resulting in a victory, which was eventually turned into a marriage proposal (holy union) by Soma, resulting in the foundation of a kingdom.[17] Antonio Pigafetta (an Italian explorer who followed Ferdinand Magellan in a circumnavigation of the globe) cites the term Cambodia in their work Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo (1524–1525) as Camogia.[18]

Scholar George Coedes refers to a 10th-century inscription of a Cambodian dynastic legend in which the hermit Kambu Swayambhuva and the celestial nymph Mera unite and establish the Solar royal dynasty (Kambu-Mera), that begins with the Chenla ruler Srutavarman and his son Sreshthavarman. Coedes suggests that the Kambu Swayambhuva legend has its origins in southern India, as a version of the Kanchi Pallava dynasty creation myth.[19][20]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Cambodia
Map

An area of 181,035 square kilometres (69,898 square miles) lies entirely within the tropics, between latitudes 10° and 15°N, and longitudes 102° and 108°E. It borders Thailand to the north and west, Laos to the northeast, and Vietnam to the east and southeast. It has a 443-kilometre (275-mile) coastline along the Gulf of Thailand.[11][21]

Phnom Aural, the highest peak rises to an elevation of 5,949 feet (1,813 metres).[22]

There are the inundations of the Tonle Sap, measuring about 2,590 square kilometres (1,000 square miles) during the dry season and expanding to about 24,605 square kilometres (9,500 square miles) during the rainy season.[23] Most of this area has been designated as a biosphere reserve.[23]

Köppen climate classification map

According to the International Development Research Center and The United Nations, Cambodia is considered Southeast Asia's most vulnerable country to the effects of climate change, alongside the Philippines.[24][25] Provinces are affected by climate change.[26] Shortages of clean water, extreme flooding, mudslides, higher sea levels and potentially destructive storms are of particular concern, according to the Cambodia Climate Change Alliance. Climate change has had an impact on water levels, ecology and productivity of the Tonlé Sap in years.[27][28]

A rainy season runs from May to October and can see temperatures drop to 22 °C (72 °F). A dry season lasts from November to April when temperatures can rise up to 40 °C (104 °F) around April. Flooding occurred in 2001 and 2002.[29] Flooding affected 17 provinces during the 2020 Pacific typhoon season.[30]

Biodiversity and conservation

Main article: Wildlife of Cambodia
See also: List of protected areas of Cambodia
Macaques at Phnom Pros, Kampong Cham Province

A biodiversity is founded on its seasonal tropical forests, containing some 180 recorded tree species, and riparian ecosystems. There are 212 mammal species, 536 bird species, 240 reptile species, 850 freshwater fish species (Tonle Sap Lake area), and 435 marine fish species recorded by science. Most of this biodiversity is contained around the Tonle Sap Lake and the surrounding biosphere.[31]

The Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve is a reserve surrounding the Tonle Sap lake. It encompasses the lake and 9 provinces: Kampong Thom, Siem Reap, Battambang, Pursat, Kampong Chhnang, Banteay Meanchey, Pailin, Oddar Meanchey and Preah Vihear. In 1997, it was successfully nominated as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.[32]

The Worldwide Fund for Nature recognises 6 "distinct" terrestrial ecoregions in Cambodia – the Cardamom Mountains rain forests, Central Indochina dry forest, Southeast Indochina dry evergreen forest, Southern Annamite Range tropical forest, Tonle Sap freshwater swamp forest, and Tonle Sap-Mekong peat swamp forest.[33]

Waterfall at Phnom Kulen
Prey Lang Forest

The rate of deforestation in Cambodia is "one of the highest in the world and it is often perceived as the most destructive, singular environmental issue" in the country.[34] Cambodia's primary forest cover fell from over 70% in 1969 to 3.1% in 2007. In total, Cambodia lost 25,000 km2 (9,700 sq mi) of forest between 1990 and 2005 – 3,340 km2 (1,290 sq mi) of which was primary forest. Since 2007, less than 3,220 km2 (1,243 sq mi) of primary forest remain.[35][36]

In 2010–2015, the annual rate of deforestation was 1.3%. The environmental degradation includes national parks and wildlife sanctuaries on a large scale and endangered and endemic species are now threatened with extinction due to loss of habitats. Reasons for the deforestation range from illegal loggings to clearings from construction projects and agricultural activities. The deforestation involves the local population, Cambodian businesses and authorities, and transnational corporations.[37][38]

Plans for hydroelectric development in the Greater Mekong Subregion, including by Laos, pose a "real danger to the food supply of Vietnam and Cambodia. Upstream dams will imperil the fish stocks that provide the vast majority of Cambodia's protein and could also denude the Mekong River of the silt Vietnam needs for its rice basket." The fisheries of Tonle Sap, the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia, supply the country's protein. The lake all but disappears in the dry season and then expands as water flow from the Mekong backs up when the rains come. "Those fish are so important for their livelihoods, both economically and nutritionally", said Gordon Holtgrieve, a professor at the University of Washington who researches Cambodia's freshwater fish and points out that none of the dams that are either built or being built on the Mekong river "are pointing at good outcomes for the fisheries".[39]

In the 2010s, the Cambodian government and educational system has increased its involvement and co-operation with both national and international environmental groups.[40][41][42] A National Environmental Strategy and Action Plan (NESAP) for Cambodia is to be implemented from 2016 to 2023 and contains ideas for how to incite a green and environmentally sustainable growth.[43]

History

Main article: History of Cambodia

Pre-Angkorian and Angkorian

Glazed stoneware dating back to the 12th century

There exists sparse evidence for a Pleistocene human occupation, which includes quartz and quartzite pebble tools found in terraces along the Mekong River, in Stung Treng and Kratié provinces, and in Kampot Province.[44] Some archaeological evidence shows communities of hunter-gatherers inhabited the region during Holocene: the "most ancient archaeological discovery site in Cambodia" is considered to be the cave of Laang Spean, in Battambang Province, which belongs to the Hoabinhian period. Excavations in its lower layers produced a series of radiocarbon dates around 6000 BC.[44][45] Upper layers in the same site gave evidence of transition to Neolithic, containing earthenware ceramics.[46]

There was the penetration of rice farmers from the north, which began in the third millennium BC.[47] "Circular earthworks" were discovered in the red soils near Memot and in the adjacent region of Vietnam in the latter 1950s. Some of them possibly date from second millennium BC.[48][49]

Khmer army going to war against the Cham, from a relief on the Bayon

Other prehistoric sites of somewhat uncertain date are Samrong Sen (not far from the capital of Oudong), where investigations began in 1875,[50] and Phum Snay, in the northern province of Banteay Meanchey.[51] An excavation at Phum Snay revealed 21 graves with iron weapons and cranial trauma which could point to conflicts in the past, possible with larger cities in Angkor.[47][52] [53] Artefacts are found during mining activities in Ratanakiri.[44]

Iron was worked by about 500 BC, with supporting evidence coming from the Khorat Plateau, in Thailand. Some Iron Age settlements were found beneath Baksei Chamkrong and other Angkorian temples while circular earthworks at the site of Lovea kilometres north-west of Angkor. Burials testify to improvement of food availability and trade (in the 4th century BC trade relations with India were already opened) and the existence of a social structure and labour organisation.[54]

Among the artifacts from the Iron Age, glass beads are evidence. Different kinds of glass beads recovered from sites, such as the Phum Snay site in the northwest and the Prohear site in the southeast, show that there were trading networks at the time. 2 networks were separated by time and space, which indicate that there was a shift from 1 network to the other at about 2nd–4th century AD, probably with changes in socio-political powers.[54]

Angkor Wat.
Faces of Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara at Prasat Bayon.

During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries, the Indianised states of Funan and its successor, Chenla, coalesced in what later is Cambodia and southwestern Vietnam. For more than 2,000 years, a region absorbed influences from India, passing them on to other Southeast Asian civilisations that later are Thailand and Laos.[55]

The Khmer Empire grew out of remnants of Chenla, becoming "firmly established" in 802 when Jayavarman II (reigned c. 790 – c. 835) declared independence from Java and proclaimed themselves a Devaraja. They and their followers instituted the cult of the God-king and began a series of conquests that formed an empire.[56] During the rule of Jayavarman VIII the Angkor empire was attacked by the Mongol army of Kublai Khan, and the ruler was able to buy peace.[57] Around the 13th century, Theravavada missionaries from Sri Lanka reintroduced Theravada Buddhism to Southeast Asia; having sent missionaries previously in 1190s.[58][59] The religion spread.[60]

The Khmer Empire was Southeast Asia's largest empire during the 12th century. The empire's centre of power was Angkor, where a series of capitals were constructed during the empire's zenith. In 2007 an international team of researchers using satellite photographs and other techniques concluded that Angkor had been the largest pre-industrial city in the world with an urban sprawl of 2,980 square kilometres (1,151 square miles).[61] The city could have supported a population of up to 1 million people.[62]

A map of Indochina in 1760

After a series of wars with neighbouring kingdoms, Angkor was sacked by the Ayutthaya Kingdom and abandoned in 1432 because of ecological failure and infrastructure breakdown.[63][64]

The hill tribe people were "hunted incessantly and carried off as slaves by the Siamese (Thai), the Annamites (Vietnamese), and the Cambodians".[65][66]

Colonial

Norodom is a ruler installed by Siam.[12]

An area had been controlled by the Vietnamese since 1698,[67] with King Chey Chettha II granting the Vietnamese permission to settle in the area decades before.[68]

Cambodia continued as a protectorate of France from 1867 to 1953, administered as part of the colony of French Indochina, and was occupied by the Japanese empire from 1941 to 1945.[69] Between 1874 and 1962, the total population increased from about 946,000 to 5.7 million.[70] After Norodom's death in 1904, France manipulated the choice of ruler, and Sisowath, Norodom's sibling, was placed on the throne. The throne became vacant in 1941 with the death of Monivong, Sisowath's offspring, and France passed over Monivong's offspring, Monireth, feeling Monireth was too independently minded. Instead, Norodom Sihanouk, a maternal grandson of King Sisowath was enthroned. The French thought Sihanouk would be "easy to control".[69] Under the reign of Sihanouk, Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953.[69]

Kingdom (1953–70)

Main article: Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–70)

In 1955, Sihanouk abdicated in favour of their parent to participate in politics and was elected prime minister. Upon their parent's death in 1960, Sihanouk became head of state. As the Vietnam War progressed, Sihanouk adopted an official policy of neutrality in the Cold War. They allowed the Vietnamese communists to use Cambodia as a sanctuary and a supply route for arms and other aid to armed forces fighting in South Vietnam. In December 1967 Washington Post journalist Stanley Karnow was told by Sihanouk that if the US wanted to bomb the Vietnamese communist sanctuaries, they would not object unless Cambodians were killed.[71] In public Sihanouk refuted the right of the U.S. to use air strikes in Cambodia, and on 26 March they said "these criminal attacks must immediately and definitively stop". On 28 March a press conference was held and Sihanouk appealed to the international media: "I appeal to you to publicise abroad this very clear stand of Cambodia—that is, I will, in any case, oppose all bombings on Cambodian territory under whatever pretext." The bombing continued.[72]

Khmer Republic (1970–75)

While visiting Beijing in 1970 Sihanouk was ousted by a military coup led by Prime Minister General Lon Nol and Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak.[73] A regime demanded that the Vietnamese communists leave Cambodia, gained the political support of the United States. The North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces, in order to retain their sanctuaries and supply lines from North Vietnam, launched armed attacks on the government. The ruler urged their followers to help in overthrowing this government.[74]

Tens of thousands of people were killed during the US bombing between 1970 and 1973.[75]
Operation Eagle Pull

Khmer Rouge rebels began using the ruler to gain support. From 1970 until 1972, a conflict was "largely" 1 between the government and army of Cambodia, and the armed forces of North Vietnam. As they gained control of Cambodian territory, the Vietnamese communists imposed a political infrastructure, which was eventually dominated by the Cambodian communists later referred to as the Khmer Rouge.[76] Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives after 1991 reveal that the North Vietnamese attempt to overrun Cambodia in 1970 was launched at the request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by Pol Pot's then second in command, Nuon Chea.[77] NVA units overran Cambodian army positions while the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) expanded their attacks on lines of communication. In response to the North Vietnamese invasion, US President Richard Nixon announced that US and South Vietnamese ground forces had entered Cambodia in a campaign aimed at destroying NVA base areas in Cambodia (see Cambodian Incursion).[78]

On New Year's Day 1975, Communist troops launched an offensive which, in 117 days, led to the collapse of the Khmer Republic. Attacks around the perimeter of Phnom Penh pinned down Republican forces, while other CPK units overran fire bases controlling the lower Mekong resupply route. A US-funded airlift of ammunition and rice ended when Congress refused additional aid for Cambodia. The Lon Nol government in Phnom Penh surrendered on 17 April 1975, 5 days after the US mission evacuated Cambodia.[79]

Khmer Rouge regime, 1975–1978

Main articles: Democratic Kampuchea and Khmer Rouge

Estimates as to how many people were killed by the Khmer Rouge regime range from approximately 1 to 3 million.[80][81][82] This era gave rise to the term Killing Fields. Hundreds of thousands fled across the border into neighbouring Thailand. The regime disproportionately targeted ethnic minority groups. The Cham Muslims underwent purges with as much as half of their population exterminated.[83] Pol Pot was determined to keep their power and disenfranchise any enemies or potential threats.[84]

Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the Khmer Rouge era reduced the Vietnamese population in Cambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984.[70] Ethnic Khmer, including professionals, such as doctors, lawyers and teachers, were targeted. According to Robert D. Kaplan, "eyeglasses were as deadly as the yellow star" as they were seen as a sign of intellectualism.[85]

Religious institutions were targeted by the Khmer Rouge. 95% of Cambodia's Buddhist temples, was "completely destroyed".[86]

Vietnamese occupation and transition, 1978–1992

Main articles: People's Republic of Kampuchea and Cambodian–Vietnamese War

In November 1978, Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia in response to border raids by the Khmer Rouge[87] and conquered it. The People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) was fully beholden to the occupying Vietnamese army and under the direction of the Vietnamese ambassador to Phnom Penh. Its arms came from Vietnam and the Soviet Union.[88]

In opposition to the state, a government-in-exile referred to as the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK) was formed in 1981 from 3 factions.[88] This consisted of the Khmer Rouge, a royalist faction led by Sihanouk, and the Khmer People's National Liberation Front. Its credentials were recognised by the United Nations. Khmer Rouge representative to UN, Thiounn Prasith, was retained, and had to work in consultation with representatives of the noncommunist Cambodian parties.[89][90] The refusal of Vietnam to withdraw from Cambodia led to economic sanctions.[91]

Peace efforts began in Paris in 1989 under the State of Cambodia, culminating 2 years later in October 1991 in a Paris Comprehensive Peace Settlement. UN was given a mandate to enforce a ceasefire and deal with refugees and disarmament known as the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC).[92]

Kingdom (1993–)

In 1993, the monarchy was restored with Norodom Sihanouk reinstated as monarch, and the first post-war election was coordinated by UNTAC. The election was won by FUNCINPEC led by Sihanouk's offspring Ranariddh in a hung parliament. A power-sharing agreement was agreed with Ranariddh and Hun Sen of the Cambodian People's Party both simultaneously being co-Prime Ministers after CPP threatened to secede part of the country if power was fully transferred to FUNCINPEC. A coup d'état in 1997 led by the co-Prime Minister Hun Sen ousted Ranariddh and other parties represented in the government and consolidated power for CPP.[93][94] After its government was able to stabilize under Sen, Cambodia was accepted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) on 30 April 1999.[95][96] Norodom Sihamoni was crowned Cambodia's monarch in 2004 after their parent's Sihanouk's abdication.[97]

During the 1990s and 2000s, reconstruction efforts progressed which led to some political stability through a multiparty democracy under a constitutional monarchy[98] while Sen's rule has human rights abuses and corruption.[99] Cambodia's economy received considerable investment and infrastructure development support from China as part of its Belt and Road Initiative.[100]

Anti-government protests in support of opposition party CNRP took place in Cambodia following the 2013 general election.

After the 2013 Cambodian general election, allegations of voter fraud from opposition party Cambodia National Rescue Party led to anti-government protests that continued into the following year. The protests ended after a crackdown by government forces.[101][102]

The Cambodia National Rescue Party was dissolved ahead of the 2018 Cambodian general election and the ruling Cambodian People's Party also enacted tighter curbs on mass media.[103] CPP won every seat in the National Assembly.[104][105]

Prime Minister Hun Sen has been accused of crackdowns on opponents and critics. In December 2021, Hun Sen announced their support for their sibling Hun Manet to succeed them after the next general election in 2023.[106] CPP confirmed Manet as its future candidate for prime minister on 24 December 2021. In October 2022, Hun Sen warned CPP members that an opposition party, the Candlelight Party, may be dissolved before the 2023 general election.[14] The warning comes after a June 2022 lawsuit filed by the National Election Committee against the party's deputy president, Son Chhay, accusing them of defamation by speaking out against electoral fraud by CPP.[107]

Politics

Main article: Politics of Cambodia

A constitutional monarchy operated as a parliamentary representative democracy. The Prime Minister of Cambodia is the head of government, while the King of Cambodia is the head of state. The prime minister is appointed by the monarch, on the advice and with the approval of the National Assembly. The prime minister and the ministerial appointees exercise executive power.

Legislative powers are shared by the executive and the bicameral Parliament of Cambodia, which consists of a lower house, the National Assembly, and an upper house, the Senate. Members of the 123-seat National Assembly are elected through a system of proportional representation and serve for a maximum term of 5 years. The Senate has 61 seats, 2 of which are appointed by the king and 2 others by the National Assembly, and the rest elected by the commune councillors from the 24 provinces of Cambodia. Senators serve 6-year terms.[108]

A government has been described by the Human Rights Watch's Southeast Asian director, David Roberts, as a "relatively authoritarian coalition via a superficial democracy".[109] The 2013 election results were disputed by Hun Sen's opposition, leading to demonstrations in the capital. Demonstrators were injured and killed in Phnom Penh where a reported 20,000 protesters gathered, with some clashing with riot police.[110] From a farming background, Hun Sen was 33 when they took power in 1985, and is by some considered a dictator.[111] Hun Sen has accumulated centralised power in Cambodia, including a praetorian guard that 'appears to rival the capabilities of the country's regular military units', and is allegedly used by Hun Sen to quell political opposition.'[112] In 1997, fearing the growing power of their co-prime minister, Norodom Ranariddh, they launched a coup, using the army to purge Ranariddh and Ranariddh's supporters. Ranariddh was ousted and fled to Paris while other opponents of Hun Sen were arrested, tortured, and some summarily executed.[113][114]

A government has been accused of corruption in the sale of areas of land to foreign investors resulting in the eviction of thousands of villagers,[115] and taking bribes in exchange for grants to exploit oil and mineral resources.[116] Cambodia is consistently listed as "one of the most corrupt governments in the world".[117][118][119] Corruption affects the judiciary, the police, and other state institutions. "Lack of a distinction" between the courts and the executive branch of government makes for a politicisation of the judicial system.[120] Examples of areas with corrupt practices include obtaining medical services, dealing with alleged traffic violations, and pursuing fair court verdicts. Companies deal with red tape when obtaining licenses and permits, including construction-related permits, and the demand for and supply of bribes occurred in this process. The 2010 Anti-Corruption Law provided no protection to whistle-blowers, and whistle-blowers can be jailed for up to 6 months if they report corruption that cannot be proven.[120]

Journalists covering a protest over disputed election results in Phnom Penh on 22 September 2013 say they were deliberately attacked by police and men in plain clothes, with slingshots and stun guns. The attack against the president of the Overseas Press Club of Cambodia, Rick Valenzuela, was captured on video. The violence came amid political tensions as the opposition boycotted the opening of Parliament due to concerns about electoral fraud. 7 reporters sustained injuries while at least 2 protesters were hit by slingshot projectiles and hospitalized.[121] In 2017, Cambodia's Supreme Court dissolved the main opposition party, Cambodia National Rescue Party (CNRP).[122] The Cambodian legal profession was established in 1932. By 1978, due to the Khmer Rouge regime, the legal system was eradicated. Judges and lawyers were executed after being deemed "class enemies" and 6–12 legal professionals survived and remained in the country.[123] Lawyers did not reappear until 1995 when the Bar Association of the Kingdom of Cambodia was created.[124][125]

A US State Department report says "forces under Hun Sen and the Cambodian People's Party have committed frequent and large-scale abuses, including extrajudicial killings and torture, with impunity".[126] According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 256,800 people are enslaved in Cambodia, or 1.65% of the population.[127] On 14 March 2018, UN expert on the human rights situation in Cambodia "expressed serious concerns about restrictions on the media, freedom of expression and political participation ahead of a national election in July".[128]

Forced land evictions by officials, security forces, and government-connected business leaders occurred.[129] Land has been confiscated from hundreds of thousands of Cambodians over more than a decade for the purpose of self-enrichment and maintaining power of groups of interests.[130] Non-governmental organisations estimate that "770,000 people have been adversely affected by land grabbing covering at least four million hectares (nearly 10 million acres) of land that have been confiscated", says Paris-based International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH).[131]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Cambodia

A government reports 20 embassies in the country[132] including the US, Australia, Canada, China, the European Union (EU), Japan, and Russia.[133] Cambodia and China have cultivated ties in the 2010s. A Chinese company with the support of the People's Liberation Army built a deep-water seaport along 90 km (56 mi) stretch of coastline of the Gulf of Thailand in Koh Kong province; the port is sufficiently deep to be used by cruise ships, bulk carriers or warships. Because Cambodia is a member of ASEAN, and because under ASEAN rules "the objections of one member can thwart any group initiative", Cambodia is diplomatically useful to China as a counterweight to southeast Asian nations that have closer ties to the United States.[134]

There are disagreements over some offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam and undefined maritime boundaries. Cambodia and Thailand have border disputes, with troops clashing over land adjacent to the Preah Vihear temple in particular. Thai troops upbuild in the area and lack of resources for the Cambodian military have left the situation unsettled since 1962.[135][136]

Cambodia signed UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[137]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Cambodia
Real GDP per capita development
A proportional representation of exports, 2019

In 2017 per capita income is $4,022 in PPP and $1,309 in nominal per capita. Most rural households depend on agriculture and its related sub-sectors. Rice, fish, timber, garments, and rubber are exports. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) reintroduced more than 750 rice varieties from its rice seed bank in the Philippines.[138]

Based on the Economist, IMF: Annual average GDP growth for the period 2001–2010 was 7.7% making it 1 of the world's top 10 countries with the highest annual average GDP growth. Tourism was Cambodia's fastest-growing industry, with arrivals increasing from 219,000 in 1997 to over 2 million in 2007. In 2004, inflation was at 1.7% and exports at US$1.6 billion.

Food stands in Siem Reap.

In the Cambodia country assessment "Where Have All The Poor Gone? Cambodia Poverty Assessment 2013", the World Bank concludes: "Over the seven years from 2004 through 2011, Cambodian economic growth was tremendous, ranking amid the best in the world. Moreover, household consumption increased by nearly 40 percent. And this growth was pro-poor—not only reducing inequality but also proportionally boosting poor people's consumption further and faster than that of the non-poor. As a result, the poverty rate dropped from 52.2 to 20.5 percent, surpassing all expectations and far exceeding the country's Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) poverty target. However, the majority of these people escaped poverty only slightly: they remain highly vulnerable—even to small shocks—which could quickly bring them back into poverty."[139]

"Two decades of economic growth have helped make Cambodia a global leader in reducing poverty. The success story means the Southeast Asian nation that overcame a vicious civil war now is classified as a lower-middle income economy by the World Bank Group (WBG). Among 69 countries that have comparable data, Cambodia ranked fourth in terms of the fastest poverty reduction in the world from 2004 to 2008. (See more details of Cambodia's achievements on poverty reduction. The poverty rate fell to 10 percent in 2013, and further reduction of poverty is expected for both urban and rural households throughout 2015–2016. However, human development, particularly in the areas of health and education, remains an important challenge and development priority for Cambodia"[140]

Paddy field in Siem Reap Province

In 2012, Credit Bureau Cambodia was established with direct regulatory oversight by the National Bank of Cambodia.[141]

Fear of "renewed political instability" and corruption within the government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid, while there has been aid from bilateral and multilateral donors. Donors pledged $504 million to the country in 2004,[98] while the Asian Development Bank alone has provided $850 million in loans, grants, and technical assistance.[142] Bribes are demanded from companies when obtaining licences and permits, such as construction-related permits.[143]

Farmers harvesting rice in Battambang Province

Cambodia ranked among the worst places in the world for organised labour in the 2015 International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) Global Rights Index, landing in the category of countries with "no guarantee of rights".'[144]

In April 2016 Cambodia's National Assembly has adopted a Law on Trade Unions. "The law was proposed at a time when workers have been staging sustained protests in factories and in the streets demanding wage increases and improvements in their working conditions".[145] The concerns about the law are shared by labour and rights groups, and international organisations. The International Labour Organization Country Office for Thailand, Cambodia and Lao PDR, has noted that the law has "several key concerns and gaps".[146]

Unions and employers remain divided. "How can a factory with 25 unions survive?" asked Van Sou Ieng, chairman of the Garment Manufacturers Association in Cambodia (GMAC), adding that it was "incomprehensible to expect an employer to negotiate a dispute with 25 different union leaders. A law was necessary to rein in the country's unions, Van Sou Ieng said. According to GMAC, last year there were 3,166 unions for the more than 500,000 workers employed in the country's 557 garment and textile exporting factories, and 58 footwear factories. Though garment production is already Cambodia's largest industry, which accounts for 26.2 percent of the country's Gross Domestic Product, Van Sou Ieng said without the trade union law, foreign investors will not come to do business".[147]

Textiles

Exports Treemap in 2017.

Garment industry represents a portion of manufacturing sector, accounting for 80% of exports. In 2012, exports grew to $4.61 billion up 8% over 2011. In the first half of 2013, the garment industry reported exports worth $1.56 billion.[148]

Better Factories Cambodia was created in 2001 as a partnership between UN's International Labour Organization (ILO) and the International Finance Corporation (IFC), a member of the World Bank Group. The programme engages with workers, employers, and governments to improve working conditions and boost the competitiveness of the garment industry.[149]

The members of PAC concurred with the findings of the evaluation related to the impact the programme has had on garment sector and workers, including: "a. contributing to sustained overall growth of the garment industry b. improving the lives of at least half a million Cambodian workers of factories in the BFC programme and many more of their family members; c. ensuring that workers receive correct wages and social protection benefits d. virtually eliminating child labour in the sector e. making Cambodia's garment factories safer overall f. creating a "level playing field" for labour across garment sector g. influencing business practices through (1) using factory data to highlight areas for improvement and (2) being a core part of risk management strategies of international brands/buyers".[150]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Cambodia
Every year, nearly 2.6 million[151] tourists visit Angkor Wat in Siem Reap.

The tourism industry is the second-greatest source of hard currency after the textile industry.[92] International visitor arrivals in 2018 topped 6 million, a 10-fold increase since the beginning of the 21st century.[152] Tourism employs 26% of the workforce.[153]

Besides Phom Penh and Angkor Wat, other tourist destinations include Sihanoukville in the southwest which has beaches and Battambang in the northwest, both of which are stops for backpackers who make up a portion of visitors.[154] The area around Kampot and Kep including the Bokor Hill Station are of interest to visitors. Tourism has increased each year in a period since the 1993 UNTAC elections.[155]

Most international arrivals in 2018 were Chinese. Tourism receipts exceeded US$4.4 billion in 2018, accounting for almost 10% of the gross national product. There are 150 casinos, up from 57 in 2014.[156]

A tourist souvenir industry employs people around places of interest. The quantity of souvenirs that are produced is not sufficient to face the increasing number of tourists and a majority of products sold to the tourists on the markets are imported from China, Thailand, and Vietnam.[157] Some of the locally produced souvenirs include soap, candles, spices,[158] wood carvings, lacquerware, and silver plate.[159]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Cambodia
National Highway 4

2 rail lines total about 612 kilometres (380 miles) of single, one-metre (3-foot-3-inch) gauge track.[160] The lines run from the capital to Sihanoukville on the southern coast. Trains are running to and from the capital and destinations in the south. After 14 years, regular rail services between the 2 cities restarted recently – offering a safer option than road for travellers.[161] Trains run from Phnom Penh to Sisophon. As of 1987, 1 passenger train per week operated between Phnom Penh and Battambang and a US$141 million project, funded mostly by the Asian Development Bank, has been started to revitalise the languishing rail system that will "(interlink) Cambodia with major industrial and logistics centers in Bangkok and Ho Chi Minh City".[160]

Phnom Penh airport shuttle train

In 2004, the number of road fatalities per 10,000 vehicles was 10 times higher than in the developed world, and the number of road deaths had doubled in the preceding 3 years.[162]

The Mekong and the Tonle Sap River, their tributaries, and the Tonle Sap provided avenues of length, including 3,700 kilometres (2,300 miles) navigable all year by craft drawing 0.6 metres (2.0 feet) and another 282 kilometres (175 miles) navigable to craft drawing 1.8 metres (5.9 feet).[163]

With increasing economic activity has come an increase in automobile use.[164]

In 2018, 3 commercial airports handled a record of 10 million passengers.[165]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Cambodia

A National Committee for Science and Technology representing 11 ministries has been in place since 1999. While 7 ministries are responsible for 33 public universities, the majority of these institutions come under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports.[166]

In 2010, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports approved a Policy on Research Development in the Education Sector. This move represented the first step towards a national approach to research and development across the university sector and the application of research for the purposes of national development.[166]

This policy was followed by the country's first National Science and Technology Master Plan 2014–2020. It was officially launched by the Ministry of Planning in December 2014, as the culmination of a 2-year process supported by the Korea International Cooperation Agency. The plan makes provision for establishing a science and technology foundation to promote industrial innovation, with a particular focus on agriculture, primary industry and ICTs.[166][167] Cambodia was ranked 109th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, down from 98th in 2019.[168][169][170][171]

Energy

Main article: Energy in Cambodia

It serves as a model to learn from for other ASEAN countries in terms of conducting solar power auctions.[172] To attract more investment in renewable energy, the government could improve renewable energy governance, adopt clear targets, develop a regulatory framework, improve project bankability and facilitate market entry for international investors.[172] It is advised that the country focuses more on developing renewable energy as part of climate change mitigation measures.[173]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Cambodia
Historical population
YearPop.±% p.a.
19625,728,771—    
19806,600,000+0.79%
19949,900,000+2.94%
199610,700,000+3.96%
199811,437,656+3.39%
200412,800,000+1.89%
200813,395,682+1.14%
201314,700,000+1.88%
201915,552,211+0.94%
National Institute of Statistics: General Population Census of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2019, Chapter 2, p. 6[4]

The first official census conducted by the French protectorate of Cambodia was in 1921.[174] After the 1962 population census was conducted, civil conflicts lead to a 36-year-long gap before the country could have another official census in 1998.[175]

At a 1.04 female to male ratio, Cambodia has the most female-biased sex ratio in the Greater Mekong Subregion.[176] Among the population aged over 65, the female to male ratio is 1.6:1.[98]

The total fertility rate was 2.5 children per woman in 2018.[177] The fertility rate was 4.0 children in 2000.[178] Women in urban areas have 2.2 children on average, compared with 3.3 children per woman in rural areas.[178] Fertility is highest in Mondol Kiri and Rattanak Kiri Provinces, where women have an average of 4.5 children, and lowest in Phnom Penh where women have an average of 2.0 children.[178]

Ethnic groups

Further information: Ethnic groups in Cambodia
Ethnic map

The majority of population is of ethnic Khmer origin (over 95%) who are speaker of the Khmer language. Minority groups include Chams (1.2%), Vietnamese (0.1%) and Chinese (0.1%).[98][179][180]

Languages

See also: Demographics of Cambodia § Languages

French, once the language of government in Indochina, is the language of instruction in some schools and universities that are funded by the government of France. Cambodia is a member of La Francophonie. Cambodian French is a dialect sometimes used in government, particularly in court. Since 1993, there has been a "growing" use of English, which has been replacing French as the "main" foreign language. English is taught in universities and there is a press in that language, while street signs are bilingual in Khmer and English.[181] Due to this shift, English is used in international relationships, and has replaced French on stamps and, since 2002, on currency.[182]

Religion

Pchum Ben, also known as "Ancestors Day", is a religious festival celebrated by Khmer Buddhists.
Main article: Religion in Cambodia

Theravada Buddhism is the official religion, practised by more than 95% of the population with an estimated 4,392 monastery temples throughout the country.[183]

Islam is followed by about 2% of the population and comes in 3 varieties, 2 practised by the Cham people and a third by the descendants of Malays, resident for generations. Muslim population is reported to be 80% ethnic Cham.[184]

Health

Main article: Health in Cambodia
Students watching a surgery operation

Life expectancy was 75 years in 2021,[185] and 55 in 1995.[186] Health care is offered by public and private practitioners and research has found that trust in health providers is a factor in improving the uptake of rural health care services.[187]

Infant mortality rate has decreased from 86 per 1,000 live births in 1998 to 24 in 2018.[188] In Ratanakiri, 22.9% of children die before age 5.[189]

According to some estimates, unexploded land mines have been responsible for over 60,000 civilian deaths and thousands more maimed or injured since 1970.[190] The number of reported landmine casualties has decreased, from 800 in 2005 to 111 in 2013 (22 dead and 89 injured).[191] Adults that survive landmines require amputation of 1 or more limbs and have to resort to begging for survival.[190] Cambodia is expected to be free of land mines by 2020.[192] Social and economic legacy include orphans and 1 in 290 people being an amputee.[193] Landmines and exploded ordnance have caused 44,630 injuries between 1979 and 2013, according to the Cambodia Mine/UXO Victim Information System.[194]

Education

Main article: Education in Cambodia
The Institute of Foreign Languages of the Royal University of Phnom Penh

The 2019 Cambodian census estimated that 88.5% of the population was literate (91.1% of men and 86.2% of women).[4] Male youth age (15–24 years) have a literacy rate of 89% compared to 86% for females.[195]

There are primary net enrolment gains, introduction of program based-budgeting, and development of a policy framework which helps "disadvantaged" children to gain access to education. The country has invested in vocational education, including in rural areas, to tackle poverty and unemployment. [196][197]

Education was offered by Buddhist temples.[198] A study by Kim (2011) reports that most employed children are enrolled in school and their employment is associated with "late school entry, negative impacts on their learning outcomes, and increased drop out rates".[199]

With respect to academic performance among primary school children, research showed that parental attitudes and beliefs played a role.[200]

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Cambodia and Preah Ko Preah Keo
The 19th-century illustration tale of Vorvong & Sorvong

Traditionally, the Khmer have a recorded information on Tra leaves. Tra leaf books record legends of the Khmer, the Ramayana, the origin of Buddhism and other prayer books. They are taken care of by wrapping in cloth to protect from moisture and the climate.[201]

Boat racing during Bon Om Touk

Bon Om Touk (Water & Moon Festival) is an annual boat rowing contest. Held in the rainy season when the Mekong River begins to sink back to other levels allowing the Tonle Sap River to reverse flow, approximately 10% of the population attends this event each year to play games, give thanks to the moon, watch fireworks, dine, and attend the boat race in a carnival-type atmosphere.[202]

Some visit pagodas across the country to mark the Pchum Ben (Ancestors' Day). During the 15-day festival, people offer prayers and food to the spirits of their dead relatives. For some, it is a time to remember their relatives, who died during 1975–1979 Khmer Rouge regime.[203]

Cuisine

Main article: Cuisine of Cambodia
File:Currysaraman.jpg
File:Prahokktis.jpg
0px
Clockwise from top left: Curry soup (samlar kari), coconut prahok dip (prahok k'tis), num banhchok and samlar kako.

Fish from the Mekong and Tonlé Sap rivers is a part of the diet. The supply of fish and fish products for food and trade as of 2000 was 20 kilograms (44 pounds) per person or 2 ounces per day per person.[204]

French influence on cuisine includes red curry with toasted baguette bread. The toasted baguette pieces are dipped in the curry and eaten. Red curry is eaten with rice and rice vermicelli noodles. Kuy teav is a pork broth rice noodle soup with fried garlic, scallions, green onions that may contain toppings such as beef balls, shrimp, pork liver or lettuce. Kampot pepper accompanies crab at the Kep crab shacks and squid in the restaurants on the Ou Trojak Jet river.[205] l

Some drink tea grown in Mondulkiri Province and around Kirirom.[206] te krolap is a tea, made by putting water and a mass of tea leaves into a glass, placing a saucer on top, and turning the whole thing upside down to brew. When it's dark enough, the tea is decanted into another cup and sugar added. Lemon tea, made with Chinese red-dust tea and lemon juice, is served with a dose of sugar.[207]

Regarding coffee, beans are imported from Laos and Vietnam – while domestically produced coffee from Ratanakiri Province and Mondulkiri Province can be found in places. Beans are roasted with butter and sugar, plus other ingredients that might include anything from rum to pork fat.[207]

Industrial breweries located in Sihanoukville Province and Phnom Penh. There are a number of microbreweries in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap.[208][209] Between 2014 and 2018, the number of craft beer breweries rose from 2 to 9. As of 2019, there are 12 brewpubs or microbreweries.[210]

Rice wine is an alcoholic drink. It is sometimes infused with fruits or medicinal herbs.[211] When prepared with macerated fruits or spices, like the Sombai liqueur, it is called sra tram (soaked wine).[212][213][214]

Dance

Main article: Dance in Cambodia
Apsara dancers at Angkor Wat
Apsara dancers

Khmer classical dance is the form of stylised performance art established in the royal courts exhibited for entertainment and ceremonial purposes.[215] The dances are performed by costumed ones on public occasions for tribute, invocation or to enact stories and epic poems such as Reamker, the Khmer version of the Ramayana.[216]

Folk dance, sometimes performed to mahori music, celebrates cultural and ethnic groups. It originated in the villages.[217] The movements are less stylised and the clothing worn is that of the people the dancers are portraying, such as hill tribes, Chams or farmers. Typically faster-paced than classical dance, folk dances display themes of the "common person" such as love, comedy or warding off evil spirits.[217]

Music

Main article: Music of Cambodia

Music is performed with western style instruments or a mixture with western instruments. Dance music is composed in particular styles for social dances. Singers of the 1960s and 1970s were murdered, starved to death, or overwork to death by the Khmer Rouge.[218]

In the 1980s, Keo Surath, (a refugee resettled in the United States) and others carried on the legacy of singers. The 1980s and 1990s saw kantrum, a music style.[219]

See also

References

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Cited sources and further reading

  • Deth, Sok Udom, and Serkan Bulut, eds. Cambodia's Foreign Relations in Regional and Global Contexts (Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, 2017; comprehensive coverage) full book online free[dead link].
    • Path Kosal, "Introduction: Cambodia's Political History and Foreign Relations, 1945–1998" pp 1–26
  • Strangio, Sebastian. Cambodia: From Pol Pot to Hun Sen and Beyond (2020)
  • Un, Kheang. Cambodia: Return to Authoritarianism (2019) excerpt
  • Morris, Stephen J. (1999). Why Vietnam Invaded Cambodia. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3049-0.
  • Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: Towards 2030, 698-713, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing. To learn how to add open license text to Justapedia articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from Justapedia, please see the terms of use.

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